"  -.] 


+  ** 


Mv 


U     V 


• 


THE  UNIVERSITY 
OF  ILLINOIS 


CENTRAL  C 

The  person 
sponsible  foi 
which  it  wa 
Latest  Date 

Thoft,    mutilation 
for    dUclpllnary 
the  University. 
TO  RENEW  CALL 
UNIVERSITY    OF 


OKSTACKS 

terial  is  re- 
ibrary  from 
•  before  the 

oks  are  reasons 
i  dismissal   from 

8400 

tANA-CHAMPAIGN 

:9  2001 

13  200Z 
0  8  2006 


due  date  below 
79521  L162 


Mfc  library 

OF  THE 

wmm  of  Illinois 


<*» 


nB*n,»it*a 


faun 


OF   HOPEWELL  WORKS,  ROSS  COUNTY,  OHIO 


Field  Museum  of  Natural  History 
Publication  2 1 1 
Anthropological  Series  Volume  VI,  No.  5 


THE  HOPEWELL  MOUND   GROUP 

OF  OHIO 


By 


Warren  K.  Moorehead 

Curator  of  Museum  of  American  Archaeology 
Phillips  Academy,  Andover,  Mass. 


48  Plates  and  68  Text-Figures 

Berthold  Laufer 
Curator  of  Anthropology 


Chicago 


192: 


FA 


CONTENTS 


Page 

List  of  Illustrations 76 

Preface      79 

I.  Work  in  the  Hopewell»Mound  Group 82 

Relation  of  the  Hopewell  Group  to  Other  Mound  Groups  82 

Detailed  Description  of  the  Hopewell  Group 82 

Clark's  Work;  North  Fork  of  Paint  Creek 83 

Our  Survey  and  Measurements ;  Comments  on  Changes  since 

1845      86 

Exploration  of  Mound  No.  1        88 

Exploration  of  Mound  No.  17      90 

Excavation  of  Mound  No.  18       92 

Excavation  of  Mound  No.  19       94 

Excavation  of  Mound  No.  20      94 

Excavation  of  Mound  No.  21       95 

Excavation  of  Mound  No.  2        95 

Excavation  of  Mound  No.  24       96 

Excavation  of  Mound  No.  23       97 

Excavation  of  Mound  No.  3  and  No.  9 101 

Mound  No.  5      102 

Excavation  of  Mound  No.  8        102 

Mound  No.  11 103 

Excavation  of  Mound  No.  25       103 

II.  Studies  of  the  Objects  Found  in  Hopewell  Mounds       .    .  116 

Metal:  Copper  Objects 116 

Chipped  Stone;  Objects  of  Quartz,  Crystal,  and  Obsidian  .    .  130 

Ground  and  Polished  Stone      134 

Pipes 140 

Mica 142 

Fossils 143 

Objects  of  Shell      1 43 

Objects  of  Bone,  Teeth,  and  Claws 149 

Carvings  on  Bone 158 

Pottery 165 

Objects  of  Burned  Clay 167 

Textiles 168 

Wooden  Objects 170 

Seeds 170 

Conclusions      173 

Bibliography  of  the  Hopewell  Group 179 

Index  to  Volume  VI 183 

75 


LIST  OF  ILLUSTRATIONS 

TEXT-FIGURES 

Page 

9.     Serpent  Tablet  from  Mound  No.  1 88 

10.  Cut  Human  Jaws  and  Perforated  Cranial  Bones  from  Mound  18    .      .      .  93 

11.  Head-dress  on  Skeleton  248 108 

12a.  Head-dress  of  Copper  from  Skeletons  260  and  261 109 

12b.  Ornament  of  Tortoise  Shell  Found  with  Skeleton  281 112 

13a.  Outline  of  Copper  Hatchets  and  Adzes 117 

13&.  Three  Copper  Hatchets  from  Skeleton  176 118 

14.  Copper  Awl  or  Pointed  Tool  from  Mound  25 118 

15.  Outlines  of  Plates 120 

16.  Buttons  of  Clay  and  Wood  Covered  with  Copper 121 

17.  Construction  of  Ear-Ornaments 123 

18.  Problematical  Form  in  Sheet  Copper 126 

19a.  Design  from  a  Sheet  Copper  of  the  Hopewell  Group 127 

igb.   Design  from  the  Cincinnati  Tablet 127 

20.  Bone  Object  from  a  Skeleton  in  Mound  25,  Showing  a  Figure  with  Cop- 
per Head-dress 128 

21.  Same  Object  as  Fig.  20,  the  Design  being  Taken  Apart 128 

22.  Copper  Cylinder 129 

23.  Meteoric  Iron  Adze  Blades  in  Antler  Handles  from  Altar  1        ....  130 

24.  Cones  of  Quartz  Crystal 130 

25.  Cone  of  Quartz  Crystal 131 

26.  Obsidian  Implements   from  Altar  2 132 

27.  Two  Sandstone  Tablets  from  Altar  1 134 

28.  Seven  Sandstone  Tablets  and  Celt -like  Objects  from  Altar  1  135 

29.  Hematite  Plummet  from  Altar  2 136 

30.  Worked  Object  of  Slate  from  Altar  2 137 

31.  Problematical  Form  in  Stone  from  Altar  2 137 

32.  Problematical  Form  from  Altar  1 138 

33.  Bar  Amulet  of  Stone  from  Altar  1 138 

34.  Bird  Stone 139 

35.  Bear's  Tooth  Carved  from  Stone  from  Altar  2 140 

36.  Stone  Effigy  of  Tadpole  (?) 141 

37.  Effigy  of  Serpentine  (Owl?) 141 

38.  Effigy  of  Human  Thumb  Made  of  Cannel  Coal  from  Skeleton  278.      .      .  142 

39.  Mica  Ornament  from  Altar  1 143 

40.  Parts  of  Mica  Ornaments 144 

41.  Fossil  Sharks'  Teeth  Ornaments  (a  from  Altar  2,  b  from  Mound  17,  c  from 

Mound  18) 145 

42.  A  Fossil  made  into  an  Ornament  from  Altar  1 145 

43.  An  Ornament  of  Shell  from  Altar  2 146 

44.  Pearl  Beads  Showing  Methods  of  Perforation 147 

45.  Three  Bone  Awls  from  Mound  25 149 

'        76 


List  of  I  llus  i  r  vtions 


77 


46. 

47- 
48. 

49- 

50 
51 
52 

53 

54 
55 

50 
57 
& 
59 
60 
61 
62 
63a 

64. 
6& 
66. 

67. 
68. 
69. 
70. 

71. 

72. 


Perforated  Needles  from  Post-Hole  in  Mound  25 150 

Fragment  of  a  Bone  Shuttle 150 

Bear's  Tooth  Split  and  Made  into  an  Ornament 151 

Bears'  Teeth  Ornaments  with  Pearls  Inserted  (Specimen  on  the  Left 
from  Skeleton  248,  Specimens  in  Centre  and  on  the  Right  from  Skele- 
ton 209) 152 

Bear  Teeth  Ornaments,  Both  Sides  Illustrated 153 

Bear  Tooth  Ornament 153 

Bear's  Tooth  Ornament  Imitated  in  Shell 154 

Cut  and  Ground  Bears' Teeth  Ornaments 155 

Sectional  Drawings  of  Teeth  (a  from  Skeleton  241,  b  from  Skeleton  277)     .  ^56 

Cut  and  Worked  Panther's  and  Bear's  Teeth 157 

Outlines  Showing  Perforations  in  Bear's  Teeth 158 

Imitation  Bear's  Tooth  in  Wood  Covered  with  Copper  from  Skeleton  177  .  159 

Imitation  Bear's  Tooth  Carved  from  Antler  from  Skeleton  278  159 

Carving  Incised  on  Bone  from  Mound  25 160 

Bird's  Head  Carved  from  Bone 161 

Bird's  Head,  Probably  a  Raven,  with  a  Pearl  Inserted  in  the  Eye       .      .  161 

Decorated  Bones  from  Altar  2 162 

Tracing  of  a  Bird's  Head  on  Bone 163 

Both  Sides  of  the  Engraved  Bone 164 

A  Drawing  of  an  Ocelot  upon  Bone 165 

Effigy  of  a  Bird  Carved  from  Bone  from  Altar  2 166 

Human  Effigy  in  Antler  from  Altar  1 167 

Human  Effigy  in  Antler  from  Altar  2 168 

Human  Effigy  Carved  from  Ivory  or  Shell  from  One  of  the  Altars.  .  169 

Shell  Ornament  Found  with  Skeleton  278 170 

Restored  Pottery  Vase  from  Altar  1 171 

Clay  Buttons  or  Beads  from  Mound  25 171 

Fragments  of  Textiles  from  Hopewell  Mounds 172 


PLATES 


frontispiece:  Plan  of  Hopewell  Works. 

XXXVIII.  View  of  the  Terrace  Occupied  by  the  Hopewell  Group; 
Camp  of  the  Survey  in  the  Foreground. 

XXXIX.  Layer  of  Mica  in  Mound  17. 

XL.  Plan  of  Mound  17. 

XLI.  Altar  in  Mound  19. 

XLIa.  Plan  of  Mound  20. 

XLII.  Pile  of  Disks  from  Mound  2. 

XLIII.  Flint  Disks  from  Mound  2. 

XLIV.  Plan  of  Mound  24. 

XLV.  Mound  23. 

XLVI.  Plan  of  Mound  23. 

XLVII.  Plan  of  the  Sections  in  Mound  25. 

XLVIII.  Plan  of  Section  2  in  Mound  25. 

XLIX.  Skeleton  248  as  It  Was  Found  in  the  Mound. 

L.  Perforated  Teeth,  Beads,  and  Broken  Copper  Plates  Lying  on  the 
Chest  of  Skeleton  248. 


78 


List  or  Illustrations 


LI. 
LII. 

LIII. 
LIV. 

LV. 
LVI. 

LVII. 

LVIII. 

LIX. 

LX. 

LXI. 

LXII. 

LXIII. 

LXIV. 

LXV. 

LXVI. 

LXVII. 

LXVIII. 

LXIX. 

LXX. 

LXXI. 
LXXII. 

LXXIII. 

LXXIV. 

LXXV. 

LXX  VI. 

LXXVII. 

LXXVIII. 

LXXIX. 

LXXX. 

LXXXI. 

LXXXII. 

LXXXIII. 


1-3,  Adze  Blades;  4-8,  Copper  Axes. 

Axe  from  Deposit  over  Skeletons  260  and  261. 

Large  Copper  Celt-Shaped  Object  from  Skeletons  260  and, 261. 

1,   Battered  Disintegrated   Celt;   2,   Typical  Copper   Hatchet  from 

Mound  25;  3,  Copper  Hatchet  Showing  Corrugated  Surface. 
Copper  Plates. 
1-6,  Copper  Disks  and  Spoon-Shaped  Objects  from  Mound  25;  7-10, 

Four  Different  Ear-Ornaments  from  Mound  25. 
Specialized  Ear- Ornaments:   1-2,   Ear-Ornaments  Showing  Repousse 

Work;  3,  Ear-Ornaments  with  Strings  Around  the  Centre. 
Bracelets. 

Anklets  or  Bracelets. 
Copper  Disks. 

1-4,  Winged  Buttons  of  Copper;  5-9,  Unknown  Forms  in  Copper. 
1,  Unknown  Design  in  Copper;  2,  Probably  Serpent  Head  in  Copper. 
Designs  in  Copper,  Probably  Representing  Serpents'  Heads. 
Unknown  Designs  in  Copper. 

1-2,  Cosmic  Symbols  in  Thin  Copper;  3,  Design  of  Sheet  Copper. 
Objects  of  Sheet  Copper,  Designs  Unknown. 
1-2,  Swastikas  in  Copper;  3-4,  Copper  Objects  in  Open  Work. 
1-3,   Copper  Objects  in  Open  Work;   4,   Sheet  Copper,   Probably 

Representing  Head  of  Serpent. 
1,  Bear  Effigy  or  Bear's  Foot;  2,  Fish  Effigy;  3,  Eagle  Effigy,  All  in 

Sheet  Copper. 
1-2,  Concave  Copper  Objects;  3-5,  Bear's  Teeth  in  Copper,  Broken 

Problematical  Form,  and  Copper  Ornament. 
Top  View  of  Head- Dress. 
1,  Large  Mass  of  Copper  Partly  Hammered;  2-3,  Masses  of  Copper 

Slightly  Hammered;  4-7,  Fragments  of  Copper  Showing  Effects  of 

the  Heat. 
Copper  Pieces  Melted  by  the  Heat  of  the  Altars. 
Fragments  of  Meteoric  Iron  Partly  Worked. 

1-2,  Large  Obsidian  Blades  from  Altar  2 ;  3,  Obsidian  Blade  Restored. 
1,  Specialized  Obsidian  Blade;  2-3,  Probably  Knives. 
1-4,  Stone  Rings  from  Altar  1;  5,  Outlines  of  Rings. 
1,  Engraved  Pipe  from  Altar  2;  2,  Duck-Fish  Pipe  from  Altar  2. 
Mica  Ornaments  from  Altar  1  in  Mound  25. 
Strings  of  Pearl  Beads  from  Mound  25. 
Copper  Plate  Showing  Imprint  of  Cloth. 
1,  Portion  of  Human  Femur  with  Carving  Found  with  Skeleton  278; 

2,  Portion  of  Human  Femur  Carved,  from  Skeleton  281. 
Effigies  Found  with  Skeleton  281. 


THE  HOPEWELL  MOUND  GROUP  OF  OHIO 

BY  WARREN  K.  MOOREHEAI) 

PREFACE 

In  view  of  the  height  of  aboriginal  culture  attained  by  the  Hopewell 
people  and  the  importance  of  the  collection  secured  from  these  mounds, 
it  seems  advisable  to  present  a  brief  historical  sketch.  The  activities 
of  the  Department  of  Anthropology  of  the  World's  Columbian  Exposi- 
tion, Chicago,  were  wide-spread  and  known  throughout  the  length  and 
breadth  of  the  scientific  world.  Yet,  notwithstanding  the  magnitude  of 
its  operations — researches  carried  on  by  a  score  of  workers — no  report 
was  ever  published.  As  a  matter  of  record,  therefore,  there  should  be 
this  brief  account  of  the  Department  and  how  the  Hopewell  survey 
came  into  being. 

About  1890,  shortly  after  the  Exposition  was  organized,  Professor 
Frederick  W.  Putnam  of  Harvard  University  was  appointed  Chief  of 
Department  M,  as  that  branch  of  the  Exposition  was  called  officially. 
Eight  or  ten  young  men,  who  had  done  work  in  American  archaeology 
and  ethnology,  were  employed  as  field  assistants  by  him,  and  they  were 
assigned  different  sections  of  the  North  and  South  American  fields. 
The  young  field  assistants,  as  well  as  older  and  more  experienced  men, 
carried  to  completion  studies  and  explorations  which  were  important. 
At  the  end  of  the  Exposition,  all  this  material  was  presented  by  Pro- 
fessor Putnam  to  Field  Museum  of  Natural  History,  in  order  that  it 
might  be  permanently  preserved. 

Professor  Putnam  appointed  me  field  assistant  for  Ohio  about 
January,  1891.  I  organized  a  force  of  eleven  or  twelve  men,  located  at 
Fort  Ancient,  Warren  County,  Ohio,  and  later  at  Oregonia,  distant  four 
miles,  and  carried  on  explorations  for  four  or  five  months.  These  two 
sites  were  dominated  by  what  is  known  as  the  Fort  Ancient  culture, 
which  is  quite  the  opposite  of  the  Hopewell  culture.  The  collections 
made  at  Fort  Ancient  and  Oregonia,  together  with  skeletal  material, 
are  now  in  Field  Museum  of  Natural  History. 

The  work  at  Oregonia  was  a  repetition  of  that  at  Fort  Ancient ;  that 
is,  we  found  and  opened  a  hundred  stone  graves  similar  to  those  of 
Tennessee  and  Kentucky,  yet  containing  few  artifacts.1 

!The  exception  was  one  of  those  Tennessee  flint  "swords"  or  ceremonial  knives, 
14  inches  in  length. 

79  \ 


80  Hopewell  Mound  Group 

I  had  in  our  camp  Squier  and  Davis'  volume  "Ancient  Monuments 
of  the  Mississippi  Valley."  This  work  had  been  studied  and  consulted 
by  me  frequently.  Notwithstanding  some  inaccuracies,  or  lack  of 
definite  knowledge  on  the  part  of  the  authors,  I  still  consider  it  the 
ranking  pioneer- work  on  the  antiquities  of  the  Ohio  Valley.  I  wrote  to 
Professor  Putnam  that,  according  to  Squier  and  Davis'  volume,  there 
were  several  unexplored  mound  groups  in  the  Scioto  Valley,  and  as  field 
assistant  I  strongly  urged  that  the  survey  move  over  to  the  Scioto 
Valley,  where  we  could  secure  an  exhibit  of  both  educational  and 
archaeological  value  for  the  Columbian  Exposition.  Professor  Putnam 
was  very  busy  directing  many  expeditions,  but  he  referred  me  to  Dr.  C. 
L.  Metz  of  Madisonville,  Ohio,  whom  he  had  asked  to  take  charge  of  all 
Ohio  Valley  explorations.  Hearing  nothing  further  from  Dr.  Metz,  we 
secured  two  large  wagons,  loaded  our  camp  outfit,  and  moved  across 
country  to  Mr.  M.  C.  Hopewell's  farm  on  the  North  Fork  of  Paint 
Creek,  Ross  County,  reaching  there  about  the  end  of  August,  1891. 
Squier  and  Davis  had  spoken  at  considerable  length  of  the  importance 
of  this  group  of  mounds,  which  they  called  "Clark's  Work,  distant  some 
seven  miles  from  the  city  of  Chillicothe."  From  reading  their  volume, 
it  was  my  firm  conviction  that  here  we  would  find  one  of  the  principal 
if  not  actually  the  largest,  settlement  of  the  Scioto  Valley  mound- 
building  tribe.  Thus  Squier  and  Davis'  work  more  than  anything  else 
brought  about  the  exploration  of  the  Hopewell  group.  It  was  not 
chance,  as  some  have  intimated. 

The  exhibits  of  copper,  obsidian,  shell,  bone,  and  clay  artifacts 
attracted  the  attention  of  thousands  of  visitors  at  the  Exposition. 
Many  letters  were  received  in  subsequent  years  from  both  institutions 
and  individuals  asking  for  a  report. 

Few  collections  have  had  more  "experiences"  than  these  objects 
from  the  ancient  Ohio  mounds,  and  it  might  be  well  to  mention  a  few 
points  of  interest.  When  the  collection  was  boxed,  ready  for  shipment, 
it  was  attached  by  a  fanner  living  near  the  group,  who  claimed  he  had 
a  contract  to  fill  the  large  pits.  This  suit  was  fought  by  me,  the  collec- 
tion saved  and  shipped  to  Cambridge,  Mass.,  where  it  was  studied  and 
then  re-shipped  to  Chicago.  After  the  Exposition,  it  was  again  for- 
warded to  Cambridge,  studied,  and  returned  to  Chicago.  Professor 
Putnam  expected  to  write  the  report,  but  failed  to  do  so;  and  Dr. 
George  A.  Dorsey  made  some  preparation  toward  publication.  Finally, 
after  some  twenty-nine  years,  thanks  to  the  courtesy  of  the  Trustees 
of  Field  Museum  of  Natural  History,  I  am  able  to  present  this  report. 

I  desire  to  state  that,  while  the  original  photographs,  some  of  the 


Preface  8i 

maps,  Dr.  Thomas  Wilson's  field  report,  G.  A.  Dorsey's  copy  of  the 
original  field-notes,  and  studies  made  during  two  visits  to  Field  Museum, 
lie  before  me,  yet,  since  the  work  ended  about  February  ist,  1892, 
many  years  have  elapsed.  Much  that  occurred  during  the  course  of 
explorations  has  been  forgotten,  and  must  necessarily  be  omitted. 
Some  of  the  ground  plans  are  absent.  The  drawings  of  the  mosaics 
or  boulder  effigies  are  gone;  and  the  original  notebook,  which  my 
friend,  Mr.  Willoughby,  tells  me  he  saw  and  examined,  cannot  be 
found.  However,  this  does  not  affect  the  accuracy  of  the  report  as  a 
whole,  although  it  is  manifest  that  a  better  report  might  have  been 
presented  had  the  field-notes  been  expanded  within  a  year  or  two  after 
the  completion  of  the  field-operations. 

In  addition  to  the  Trustees  of  the  Museum,  I  desire  to  thank  Mr. 
C.  C.  Willoughby,  director  of  the  Peabody  Museum  at  Cambridge, 
Mass.,  for  cooperation,  assistance,  and  advice.  Mr.  Willoughby  per- 
sonally studied  the  Hopewell  collection,  shortly  after  the  exploration 
was  completed.  He  has  very  kindly  placed  at  my  disposal  some  three 
hundred  pages  of  notes  and  drawings  which  he  made  at  that  time. 
His  familiarity  with  American  prehistoric  art-forms  has  enabled  him  to 
point  out  certain  comparisons  of  interest  and  value.  All  of  his  notes 
and  observations  might  have  been  submitted  by  him  in  a  valuable 
memoir  of  his  own;  yet  he  unselfishly  placed  them  at  my  disposal,  and 
I  hereby  wish  to  tender  him  my  most  sincere  appreciative  thanks. 

The  late  Dr.  Thomas  Wilson,  for  many  years  curator  of  prehistoric 
anthropology  in  the  Smithsonian  Institution,  visited  the  Hopewell 
group  on  two  occasions.  .He  prepared  an  article  setting  forth  his 
observations  for  Dr.  Holmes,  who  very  kindly  sent  me  the  original 
document,  together  with  some  photographs.  Dr.  Holmes  also  visited 
the  Hopewell  group,  and  I  am  indebted  to  him  for  his  kindness.  Pro- 
fessor W.  C.  Mills  has,  during  the  past  years,  offered  several  suggestions, 
or  furnished  information  concerning  his  studies  of  the  Hopewell  culture 
in  sites  other  than  the  Hopewell  group  itself,  and  I  desire  to  record  full 
appreciation  of  his  kindness. 


I.     WORK   IN   THE   HOPEWELL   MOUND   GROUP 

Relation  of  the  Hopewell  Group  to  Other  Mound  Groups. — 
The  archaeological  map  of  the  State  of  Ohio  presents  5,396  mounds, 
village  sites,  enclosures,  fortifications,  etc.  This  map  was  begun  by 
me  about  1894,  but  was  brought  to  completion  by  Professor  Mills  in 
1 91 4.  There  are  about  992  of  these  ancient  monuments  in  the  Scioto 
Valley.  Further  reducing  our  number  to  the  earthworks,  enclosures  or 
mound  groups  lying  in  the  main  Scioto  Valley  and  not  ascending  trib- 
utary streams  into  the  uplands,  where  the  Fort  Ancient  culture  obtains, 
there  probably  are  two  hundred  or  more  groups  of  ancient  structures  of 
earth  varying  from  a  few  to  many  mounds.  Finally,  narrowing  the  total 
to  larger  sites  such  as  the  Hopewell  on  the  North  Fork  of  Paint  Creek, 
there  are  some  large  groups  above  and  below  the  city  of  Chillicothe 
on  the  main  Scioto,  and  a  group  at  Circleville,  which  was  destroyed 
at  the  time  that  town  was  built;  also  some  between  Chillicothe  and 
Portsmouth.  These  mound  groups  represent  the  culture  which  Pro- 
fessor Putnam  seems  to  have  sensed  to  some  degree  in  his  early  work 
in  the  Ohio  Valley.  Squier  and  Davis  consider  it  quite  different  from 
that  of  the  later  Indians.  The  work  at  Fort  Ancient  and  Hopewell 
emphasized  the  difference  between  these  two  cultures,  and  finally 
Professor  Mills  gave  the  cultures  concrete  terms,  "Fort  Ancient  and 
Hopewell." 

Detailed  Description  of  the  Hopewell  Group. — The  first 
mention  of  the  Hopewell  group  is  made  in  Caleb  At  water's  "Archae- 
ologia  Americana"  (1820).  This  and  other  accounts  will  be  found  in 
the  bibliography,  which  appears  as  an  appendix  to  my  report.  Atwater 
was  a  resident  of  Circleville,  Ohio,  for  many  years.  I  made  inquiry  in 
1892  among  the  older  residents  of  Circleville,  one  or  two  of  whom 
remembered  him;  but  nothing  concerning  his  work  could  be  learned, 
except  that  he  spent  considerable  time  examining  the  mounds.  In  his 
map  he  omits  a  number  of  mounds,  but  presents  a  circle  enclosing  six 
large  mounds,  which  were  shown  on  my  first  map  as  the  Effigy,  but 
which  we  now  call  Mound  25.  Atwater  speaks  of  this  Mound  25  as  35 
feet  high  and  400  feet  at  the  base  (longest  diameter).  Squier  and 
Davis  mention  seven  mounds  surrounded  by  this  circle,  three  of  which 
constituted  Number  25.  Of  these  three  (joined  together)  they  stated 
the  elevation  as  33  feet,  the  length  as  500  feet,  the  width  as  180  feet. 

82 


Description  of  Hopewell  Group  83 

It  must  be  remembered  that  the  Hopewell  group  lies  on  very  rich  soil, 
and  has  been  cultivated  continuously.  From  Atwater's  description  it 
would  appear  that  the  three  mounds  forming  No.  25  were  built  on  a 
terrace  or  platform.  It  is  not  necessary  to  quote  Atwater's  description, 
but  what  Squier  and  Davis  said  might  well  apply  to  the  work  as  we 
found  it.  With  the  exception  of  a  few  omitted  mounds,  I  herewith 
append  same,  but  present  Mr.  Cowen's  map  instead  of  theirs.  It  will 
further  be  observed  that  we  followed  their  numbering  as  far  as  possible, 
but  added  numbers  to  mounds  not  recorded  by  them.  In  honor  of  the 
owner,  M.  C.  Hopewell,  we  changed  the  name  from  Clark's  Works  to 
Hopewell  Group. 

Clark's  Work;  North  Fork  of  Paint  Creek.1 — The  work  here 
presented  is  one  of  the  largest  and  most  interesting  in  the  Scioto  Valley. 
It  has  many  of  the  characteristics  of  a  work  of  defence,  and  is  accord- 
ingly classified  as  such,  although  differing  in  position  and  some  other 
respects  from  the  entrenched  hills  just  described.  The  minor  works 
which  it  encloses,  or  which  are  in  combination  with  it,  are  manifestly 
of  a  different  character,  probably  religious  in  their  design,  and  would 
seem  to  point  to  the  conclusion  that  this  was  a  fortified  town  rather 
than  a  defensive  work  of  last  resort. 

It  is  situated  on  the  North  Fork  of  Paint  Creek,  on  the  estate  of 
W.  C.  Clark,  and  occupies  the  entire  width  of  the  second  terrace,  which 
here  presents  a  broad  and  level  plain,  of  exceeding  beauty  and  fertility. 
Its  general  form  is  that  of  a  parallelogram,  2,800  by  1,800  feet,  with 
one  of  its  corners  somewhat  rounded.  On  the  side  next  the  creek,  it  is 
bounded  by  a  wall  four  feet  high,  running  along  the  very  edge  of  the 
terrace  bank,  and  conforming  to  its  irregularities;  these,  however,  are 
slight.  Its  remaining  sides  are  bounded  by  a  wall  and  exterior  ditch; 
the  wall  is  6  feet  high,  by  35  feet  at  the  base,  and  the  ditch  of  corre- 
sponding dimensions.  The  lines  ascend  the  declivity  of  the  tableland 
back  of  the  terrace,  and  extend  along  its  brow,  dipping  into  the  ravines, 
and  rising  over  the  ridges  into  which  it  has  been  cut  by  the  action  of 
water.  Wherever  the  ravines  are  of  any  considerable  depth,  the  wall 
has  been  washed  away;  but  in  all  cases  leaving  evidences  that  it  once 
extended  uninterruptedly  through.  The  bank  of  the  terrace  is  30,  that 
of  the  tableland  50  feet  in  height. 

The  area  thus  enclosed  is  one  hundred  and  eleven  acres.  To  the 
right  of  the  principal  work,  and  connecting  with  it  by  a  gateway  at 

!This  plan  is  from  an  original,  minute  survey  by  the  authors.  A  plan  and  descrip- 
tion of  the  same  work  were  published  by  Atwater  in  the  Archaeologia  Americana. 
It  will  be  found  to  differ  in  some  important  respects. 


84  Hopewell  Mound  Group 

its  centre,  is  a  smaller  work  of  sixteen  acres  area.  It  is  a  perfect  square, 
its  sides  measuring  respectively  850  feet.  It  has  gateways  at  the  middle 
of  each  side,  30  feet  wide,  and  covered  by  small  mounds,  which  are 
placed  50  feet  interior  to  the  walls.  There  are  gateways  also  at  the 
two  outer  corners,  which  are  unaccompanied  by  mounds.  The  opening 
which  leads  to  the  principal  enclosure  is  twice  as  wide  as  the  others. 
The  walls  of  the  smaller  works  are  much  lighter  than  those  of  the  larger 
one  and  have  no  attendant  ditch. 

Within  the  area  of  the  great  work  are  two  small  ones;  one  of  them 
is  a  perfect  circle,  350  feet  in  diameter,  bounded  by  a  single  slight  wall, 
with  a  gateway  opening  to  the  west ;  the  other  is  a  semi-circular  enclos- 
ure, 2000  feet  in  circumference,  bounded  by  a  slight  circumvallation 
and  ditch,  as  represented  in  the  plan.  Within  this  last  enclosure  are 
seven  mounds ;  three  of  which  are  joined  together,  forming  a  continuous 
elevation,  35  feet  high  by  500  feet  long,  and  180  feet  broad  at  the  base. 
The  ground  within  this  work  appears  to  be  elevated  above  the  general 
level  of  the  plain,  whether  designedly  or  by  the  wasting  of  the  mounds 
it  is  impossible  to  say.  There  are  other  mounds  at  the  points  indicated 
in  the  plan,  most  of  which  have  been  explored;  with  what  results, 
will  appear  in  the  chapter  on  mounds.  It  may  nevertheless  be  proper 
to  remark  that  nearly  all  the  mounds  examined  were  places  of  sacrifice, 
containing  altars,  thus  confirming  the  opinion  already  confidently 
expressed,  respecting  the  character  of  the  work. 

Where  the  defences  descend  from  the  tablelands  to  the  left,  is  a 
gully  or  torrent-bed,  which,  before  the  construction  of  this  work,  kept 
the  course  indicated  by  the  irregular  line.  It  was  turned  by  the  builders 
from  its  natural  channel  into  the  ditch,  along  which  it  still  runs  for  a 
considerable  distance;  but  at  one  place  it  has  broken  over  the  wall, 
obliterating  it  for  nearly  200  feet.  It  is  dry  at  most  seasons  of  the  year; 
and,  unless  much  swollen  by  the  rains,  keeps  the  course  of  the  ditch, 
terminating  in  a  deep  gully,  formed  by  the  flow  of  water  from  a  copious 
and  unfailing  spring.  This  gully  is  made  to  answer  as  a  ditch,  for  the 
space  yet  intervening,  to  the  edge  of  the  terrace.  It  is  15  feet  deep, 
by  60  or  70  feet  wide.  In  several  other  instances,  this  artificial  change 
in  water-courses  has  been  observed. 

The  gateways  of  this  work  are  six  in  number;  one  opening  into  the 
smaller  enclosure  to  the  east,  two  upon  the  tablelands,  one  to  the  spring 
first  mentioned,  and  two  others  toward  the  creek.  Two  considerable 
springs  occur  within  the  walls.  It  is  not  necessary,  however,  upon  the 
hypothesis  already  advanced  in  respect  to  this  work,  to  suppose  its 
ancient  population  wholly  dependent  upon  these  sources  for  their 


Clark's  Work.    North  Fork  of  Paint  Creek  85 

supply  of  water,  inasmuch  as  it  is  very  evident  that  many  centuries 
have  not  elapsed  since  the  creek,  now  100  rods  distant,  washed  the 
base  of  the  terrace  upon  which  it  stands.  Indeed,  until  recently,  and 
until  prevented  by  dykes  above,  the  creek  at  its  highest  stages  continued 
to  send  a  portion  of  its  waters  along  its  ancient  channel. 

The  slight  wall  along  the  terrace  bank  is  composed  chiefly  of  smooth, 
water-worn  stones,  taken  from  the  creek,  and  cemented  together  by 
tough,  clayey  earth.  The  wall  of  the  square  is  wholly  of  clay,  and  its 
outlines  may  be  easily  traced  by  the  eye,  from  a  distance,  by  its  color. 
It  appears,  as  do  the  embankments  of  many  other  works,  to  have 
been  slightly  burned.  This  appearance  is  so  marked  as  to  induce 
some  persons  to  suppose  that  the  walls  were,  in  certain  instances, 
originally  composed  of  bricks  partially  baked,  but  which  have  in 
process  of  time  lost  their  form,  and  subsided  into  a  homogeneous 
mass.  That  they  have  in  some  cases  been  subjected  to  the  action  of 
fire,  is  too  obvious  to  admit  of  doubt.  At  one  point  in  the  lower  wall 
of  the  square,  stones  and  large  masses  of  pebbles  and  earth,  much 
burned,  and  resembling  a  ferruginous  conglomerate,  are  turned  up 
by  the  plough.  May  not  this  feature  be  accounted  for  by  supposing 
the  walls  to  have  been  originally  surmounted  by  palisades,  which  were 
destroyed  by  the  action  of  fire?  Such  a  cause,  however,  seems  hardly 
adequate  to  produce  so  striking  results. 

The  broken  tableland  upon  which  the  main  work  extends  forms 
natural  bastions  at  the  north,  which  have  gateways  opening  to  them. 
At  a  certain  point  in  the  enbankment,  a  quantity  of  calcined  human 
bones  are  observable. 

Such  are  some  of  the  features  of  this  interesting  work;  and  if  their 
detail  has  been  tedious,  it  may  be  urged  in  extenuation  of  such  minute- 
ness, that  descriptions  have  hitherto  been  quite  too  vague  and  general. 
Minute  circumstances  are  often  of  the  first  importance  in  arriving  at 
correct  conclusions.  The  comparative  slightness  of  the  wall  and  the 
absence  of  a  ditch,  at  the  points  possessing  natural  defences — the 
extension  of  the  artificial  defences  upon  the  tablelands  overlooking 
and  commanding  the  terrace, — the  facilities  afforded  for  an  abundant 
supply  of  water,  as  well  as  the  large  area  enclosed,  with  its  mysterious 
circles  and  sacred  mounds, — all  go  to  sustain  the  conclusion  that  this 
was  a  fortified  town  or  city  of  the  ancient  people.  The  history  of  its 
fall,  if  its  strange  monuments  could  speak,  would  perhaps  tell  of  heroic 
defence  of  homes  and  altars  and  of  daring  achievements  in  siege  and 
assault. 

The  amount  of  labor  expended  in  the  construction  of  this  work, 


86  Hopewell  Mound  Group 

in  view  of  the  imperfect  means  at  the  command  of  the  builders,  is 
immense.  The  embankments  measure  together  nearly  three  miles  in 
length;  and  a  careful  computation  shows  that,  including  mounds,  not 
less  than  3,000,000  cubic  feet  of  earth  were  used  in  their  composition. 
Within  this  work,  some  of  the  most  interesting  discoveries  recorded 
in  this  volume  were  made. 

Our  Survey  and  Measurements;  Comments  on  Changes  Since 
1845. — The  map  of  our  survey  (Frontispiece)  was  drawn  by  Clinton 
Cowen,  civil  engineer.  There  is  one  error  to  be  noted,  and  this  is  that 
Mr.  Cowen  copied  Squier  and  Davis'  cross-section,  which  makes  the 
highest  point  in  No.  25  thirty-three  feet.  During  the  course  of  explora- 
tion, we  found  the  highest  point  from  the  base  line  to  the  summit  to 
be  twenty-three  feet. 

Attention  has  been  called  once  or  twice  to  discrepancies  in  the 
measurements  of  this  large  mound.  When  the  survey  located  on  Mr, 
Hopewell's  farm,  the  mound  was  covered  with  a  heavy  growth  of  clover. 
Since  Squier  and  Davis'  visit  (1844-45)  it  had  been  cultivated  continu- 
ously, and  the  diameter  and  length  extended.  The  trenches  or  cuts 
made  through  it  show  that  the  original  diameter  was  far  less  than  at 
the  present  time.  The  discrepancies  in  measurements  relate  solely  to 
the  "wash"  or  "feather  edge."  The  slope  of  the  mound  where  it  meets 
the  surrounding  surface,  or  area,  is  very  gentle;  and  this  slope  is  extended 
by  ploughing  and  natural  wash  or  erosion.  Mr.  Cowen,  Dr.  Wilson, 
Dr.  Cresson,  and  myself  differed  from  three  or  four  to  as  much  as  ten 
feet  as  to  where  the  feather  edge  ended,  and  the  natural  surface  began. 
It  seems  to  me  that  the  general  statement  made  in  the  notes,  and  in 
one  or  two  preliminary  publications,  that  mound  No.  25  was  550  feet 
long  and  220  feet  wide,  is  as  near  the  exact  as  can  be  determined. 
Nothing  was  found  in  the  cuts  beyond  a  point  where  their  walls  were 
five  or  six  feet  in  height.  The  exploration  indicated  that  the  original 
area  covered  by  this  mound  must  have  been  approximately  400  by  160 
feet.  Thus  it  will  be  seen  that  the  discrepancies  in  the  measurements 
are  confined  to  the  disturbed  or  extended  edges,  and  are  of  little  con- 
sequence. 

Squier  and  Davis  have  given  such  a  good  description  that  I  will  only 
call  attention  to  the  points  overlooked  by  them.  The  entire  space 
enclosed  was  occupied  as  a  village  site,  but  the  indications  are  most 
numerous  where  the  words  "village  site"  have  been  placed  on  the  map. 
We  examined  the  point  in  the  wall,  where  they  found  calcined  human 
bones,  but  could  discover  no  traces.  The  burned  wall  of  the  eastern 
square  also  is  so  obliterated  that  accurate  observation  could  not  be 


Survey  and  Measurements  87 

made.  The  change  of  the  stream's  course  (west  side  of  the  enclosure) 
is  interesting  and  quite  unusual  in  Indian  works. 

Although  manifestly  a  work  of  defence,  yet  I  cannot  understand 
how  the  Hopewell  group  could  have  been  used  as  such.  The  north 
section  of  the  wall  mounts  from  the  second  to  the  third  terrace  some 
thirty-five  or  forty  feet  in  height.  The  wall  is  low.  The  ground  a 
hundred  feet  north  (or  back)  from  the  wall  commands  a  plain  view  of 
the  mounds  and  village  site  below.  An  arrow  could  be  shot  from  this 
tableland  as  far  as  Mound  18.  Dr.  Holmes,  Dr.  Wilson,  and  other 
visitors  to  our  camp,  could  not  understand  how  the  works  afforded  any 
protection  whatever  to  the  inhabitants.  The  range  of  high  ground  to  the 
north,  commanding  the  entire  area  below,  was  at  least  a  quarter  of  a 
mile  in  length.  The  wall,  except  in  the  woods,  does  not  appear  to  have 
ever  been  very  strong,  and  even  if  it  was  surrounded  by  palisades,  I 
am  of  the  opinion  that  a  party  of  warriors  could  break  through  at  any 
desired  point.  A  heavy  fire  from  this  commanding  position  would 
drive  the  inhabitants  as  far  south  as  a  line  drawn  between  Mounds  16 
and  18.  Part  of  the  besieging  force  could  continue  such  a  fire,  while 
others  made  a  breach  in  the  walls  or  oalisades.  and,  entering,  deploy 
along  the  base  of  the  terrace.  They  would  have  a  great  advantage  over 
the  inhabitants,  being  then  upon  the  same  level  with  them,  and  protected 
by  a  fire  from  their  friends  on  the  higher  land  above. 

This  peculiarity  is  observed  in  other  Indian  works.  We  should  not 
always  judge  these  people's  works  from  our  point  of  view  as  to  proper 
defensive  works.  Much  that  they  did  seems  inconsistent  to  us;  yet 
there  may  have  been  protective  features  of  which  we  are  not  aware. 
I  merely  offer  opinions  based  on  a  residence  and  study  of  several  months. 

The  forest  cutting  and  draining  of  land  everywhere  in  southern 
Ohio  has  unquestionably  affected  the  water  flow.  There  are  heavy 
freshets  and  floods  in  the  spring,  low  water  in  the  summer.  The  springs 
mentioned  by  Squier  and  Davis  do  not  flow  strongly  to-day.  In  fact, 
save  the  one  in  the  northeast  corner,  where  our  tents  were  pitched, 
all  the  others  have  nearly  dried  up. 

The  distance  from  the  southern  edge  of  the  group  to  the  North 
Fork  of  Paint  Creek  is  about  a  third  of  a  mile,  being  a  little  farther 
than  indicated  by  Squier  and  Davis  upon  their  map. 

The  central,  and,  of  course,  the  most  interesting  feature  of  the 
entire  work,  is  Mound  25,  formerly  known  as  the  Effigy.  It  is  shown 
by  Atwater,  as  well  as  by  Squier  and  Davis,  as  a  union  of  three  mounds; 
four  other  mounds  were  situated  just  south  of  it,  and  they  are  all 
surrounded  by  a  semicircular  enclosure.     The  circle  and  the  square 


! 


88  Hopewell  Mound  Group 

(farther  east)  may  represent  cosmic  symbols,  such  as  the  sun  and  four 
corners  of  the  earth,  or  they  may  have  surrounded  the  dwellings  of 
certain  clan  elders.  This  is  more  or  less  speculative;  yet  the  squares 
and  circles  so  frequently  found  associated  with  larger  mound  groups 
unquestionably  were  erected  for  some  special  purpose.  Future  explora- 
tions and  study  may  more  specifically  determine  their  nature.  We 
cannot,  after  explorations,  consider  Mound  25  as  being  composed  of 
three  mounds,  but  rather  hold  that  it  is  formed  by  the  grouping  together 
of  a  number  of  small  mounds,  and  that  over  their  irregular  contour 
was  heaped  a  great  mass  of  earth  and  gravel,  giving  it  its  present 
appearance.  At  first,  we  called  it  the  "Effigy,"  because,  externally,  it 
represents  the  human  trunk;  but,  internally,  its  contents  give  us  no 
authority  for  such  a  name. 

The  morning  of  September  1,  1891,  we  spent  in  looking  over  the 
group  very  carefully.  We  counted  twenty -four  mounds.  On  our  map 
there  is  no  No.  13,  but  I  think  it  is  the  one  in  the  right-hand  corner, 
just  below  the  road  and  above  the  word  "Hopewell."  The  four  mounds 
within  the  square  to  the  east  were  so  disturbed  and  reduced  in  height 
that  we  did  not  number  them.  We  tested  them  and  found  practically 
nothing. 

Plate  XXXVIII  shows  the  plain  or  terrace  occupied  by  the  Hopewell 
group,  with  our  camp  in  the  foreground.  Being  in  high  clover,  the 
mounds  do  not  appear  clearly  in  the  negative.  The  view  was  charming. 
Often  on  moonlight  nights  we  looked  down  upon  the  mounds  and 
speculated  as  to  the  builders,  their  life,  and  wondered  whence  they 
came,  and  whither  they  went. 


Fig.    q. 
Serpent  Tablet  from  Mound  No.   i. 

Exploration  of  Mound  No.  1. — This  mound  has  entirely  dis- 
appeared, although  there  were  traces  of  disturbance,  such  as  burnt 
earth,  etc.,  on  its  site.  Squier  and  Davis  found  some  remarkable 
tablets  in  this  mound,  one  or  two  of  which  suggested  the  famous 
"Cincinnati  tablet."  In  Fig.  9  their  illustration  of  the  serpent  tablet 
is  reproduced.    In  regard  to  the  mound,  they  write  as  follows: — 


Mound  No.  i  89 

"From  one  of  the  mounds,  numbered  1  in  the  plan  of  the  great 
enclosure  on  the  North  Fork  of  Paint  Creek,  were  taken  several  singu- 
larly sculptured  tablets,  of  one  of  which  the  figure  here  presented  is  a 
copy,  so  far  as  it  has  been  found  possible  to  restore  it  from  the  several 
fragments  recovered.  It  represents  a  coiled  rattlesnake:  both  faces  of 
the  tablet  being  identical  in  sculpture,  excepting  that  one  is  plane,  the 
other  slightly  convex.  The  material  is  a  very  fine  cinnamon-colored 
sandstone,  and  the  style  of  the  sculpture  is  identical  with  that  displayed 
in  the  tablet  from  the  Cincinnati  mound  already  noticed.  The  original 
is  bYs  inches  -long,  i^g  inches  broad,  and  a  quarter  of  an  inch  thick. 
The  workmanship  is  delicate,  and  the  characteristic  feature  of  the 
rattlesnake  perfectly  represented.  It  is  to  be  regretted  that  it  is  im- 
possible to  restore  the  head,  which,  so  far  as  it  can  be  made  out,  has 
some  peculiar  and  interesting  features — plumes  or  ornamental  figures 
surmounting  it.  Previous  to  the  investigation  of  the  mound  by  the 
authors,  an  entire  tablet  was  obtained  from  it  by  an  individual  residing 
near  the  spot,  who  represents  it  to  have  been  carefully  and  closely 
enveloped  in  sheets  of  copper,  which  he  had  great  difficulty  in  removing. 
Incited  by  a  miserable  curiosity,  he  broke  the  specimen,  to  ascertain 
its  composition,  and  the  larger  portion,  including  the  head,  was  subse- 
quently lost.  The  remaining  fragment,  from  its  exceedingly  well- 
preserved  condition,  confirms  the  statement  of  the  finder  respecting 
its  envelopment.  It  seems  that  several  of  these  tablets  were  originally 
deposited  in  the  mound ;  the  greater  portions  of  four  have  been  recovered, 
but  none  displa}Tmg  the  head  entire.  The  person  above  mentioned 
affirms  that  the  head,  in  the  specimen  which  he  discovered,  was  sur- 
rounded by  'feathers;'  how  far  this  is  confirmed  by  the  fragment, 
the  reader  must  judge  for  himself.  The  tablets  seem  to  have  been 
originally  painted  of  different  colors;  a  dark  red  pigment  is  yet  plainly 
to  be  seen  in  the  depression  of  some  of  the  fragments;  others  had 
been  painted  of  a  dense  black  color." 

We  hoped  to  find  something  of  interest  hc:C,  but  the  mound  had 
been  completely  ploughed  down.  At  the  time  of  their  visit,  about 
1845  or  1846,  it  was  three  feet  high.  A  Civil  War  veteran,  living  in 
the  neighborhood,  had  earnestly  begged  for  work.  He  was  unable  to 
use  the  shovel,  but  he  was  set  to  work  with  a  hand  trowel,  and  for  six 
weeks  he  dug  to  a  depth  of  six  to  ten  inches  on  the  site  of  No.  1  over  an 
area  a  hundred  yards  in  diameter.  This  man  found  more  than  two 
hundred  fragmentary  bone  carvings,  some  fragments  of  graphite  or 
terra-cotta  rings,  and  other  interesting  objects.  This  indicated  that 
Squier  and  Davis  had  not  taken  all  the  objects  out  of  the  mound,  but 


90  Hopewell  Mound  Group 

that  during  forty-five  years  of  cultivation  of  the  soil  these  carved  bone 
tubes,  rings,  and  other  objects  had  become  destroyed.  It  is  most 
unfortunate  that  no  complete  specimen  could  be  secured.  They  show 
precision  of  line  work  and  a  high  degree  of  artistic  ability. 

Exploration  of  Mound  No.  17. — The  mounds  were  not  opened  in 
consecutive  order,  but  according  to  the  convenience  of  our  survey  and 
operations.  While  the  old  soldier  continued  his  hand  trowel  work  for 
many  days,  the  men  opened  other  mounds.  Often,  after  the  first  five 
or  six  feet  had  been  removed  from  the  top  of  one  mound,  a  part  of  the 
crew  was  transferred  to  another  mound,  and  the  most  competent 
workmen  finished  the  exploration.  After  opening  a  few  mounds  of 
the  Hopewell  group,  it  was  discovered  that  no  burials  (save  an  occa- 
sional intrusive)  would  be  found  above  the  base  line.  There  was 
therefore  no  danger  of  disturbing  burials,  if  the  upper  part  of  the  mound 
was  removed  by  means  of  teams  and  scrapers.  After  the  teams  had 
reduced  a  mound  to  within  four  or  five  feet  of  the  base  line,  the  lower 
trench  was  dug  out  by  hand.  We  used  from  four  to  six  scrapers,  and 
seven  to  ten  laborers  and  shovelers.  The  smaller  mounds  were  dug 
by  hand,  and  no  scrapers  were  used. 

Mound  17  was  a  hundred  yards  from  camp.  It  is  not  numbered  by 
Squier  and  Davis.  It  was  about  4  feet  3  inches  high,  89.4  feet  northwest 
and  southeast,  79.10  feet  northeast  and  southwest.  Careful  plans 
were  made  as  the  work  progressed.    These  are  thirteen  in  number. 

A  few  stones  were  noted  on  the  south  end  of  the  mound,  but  these 
could  not  be  considered  a  layer.  The  original  surface  or  base  of  the 
mound  was  reached,  when  the  wall  of  our  excavation  was  three  feet 
and  one  inch  in  height.  When  we  proceeded  about  nine  feet,  a  burnt 
area  appeared  on  the  west  side,  and  charcoal  and  mica  layers  to  the 
east.  A  portion  of  the  field-notes  of  this  mound  is  herewith  reproduced 
but  it  is  not  necessary  to  insert  in  this  report  all  the  field-notes  on  the 
other  mounds,  much  of  which  would  be  repetition  of  Ohio  mound 
exploration  in  general,  that  is  familiar  to  most  students  of  archaeology. 
These  notes  are  preserved  in  Field  Museum  of  Natural  History,  and  I 
presume,  will  be  accessible  to  students  who  care  to  go  into  the  details 
of  our  explorations.  Certain  of  the  drawings,  sketches  or  photographs 
are  not  reproduced  in  this  publication. 

Wednesday,  September  2,  1891.  Work  was  resumed  this  morning 
at  6.30  a.  m.  Careful  drawings  were  made  of  the  north-section  wall  of 
the  excavation,  and  the  depth  of  the  top  soil  noted  as  2  feet  1  inch  on 
the  west  side  and  2  feet  2  inches  on  the  east  side.  Beneath  this  was  a 
layer  of  burnt  limestone  3  inches  in  depth  and  extending  clear  across 


Mound  No.  17  91 

the  excavation.  Underlying  this  was  3  feet  of  dark  earth  on  the  west 
side,  and  2  feet  on  the  east  side.  A  post-hole  was  encountered  on  the 
east  side,  trending  east  northeast.  It  measured  2  feet  in  depth  and  8 
inches  in  width ;  beside  it  was  a  fragment  of  an  earthen  vessel  and  just 
beyond,  toward  the  east  corner  of  the  excavation,  lay  a  charred  log  of 
oak  wood.  This  log  was  covered  on  its  south  end  by  plates  of  mica 
placed  on  edge.  A  careful  sketch  of  the  position  of  this  peculiarity  was 
made,  and  other  notes  taken  of  the  mica  layer.  Mr.  Smith  also  made  a 
photograph  of  this  mica  layer  (Plate  XXXIX).  A  circular  depression 
being  encountered  on  the  east  side  of  the  excavation,  and  fragments 
of  bone  awls  of  about  1  inch  in  length,  very  narrow,  also  being  found; 
it  was  deemed  best  to  follow  the  dark  soil  downward;  and  still  another 
trench  was  made  at  a  lower  level,  and  the  work  again  pushed  north, 
exposing  two  post-holes  on  the  hard  pan  level,  and  the  outline  of  the 
burnt  area  in  profile  was  determined  (see  Plate  XL).  A  layer  of  burnt 
limestone  was  observed  on  the  east  side. 

September  3,  1891.  A  copper  implement  was  discovered  in  the 
position  designated  G.  The  letter  H  shows  the  log  end,  heretofore 
mentioned,  and  the  continuation  of  the  mica  layer.  Attention  has 
already  been  called  to  the  fact  that  the  south  side  of  this  log  was  faced 
by  plates  of  mica  placed  upright,  leaning  against  it.  A  similar  arrange- 
ment was  noted  on  the  north  side.  A  skeleton  found  with  the  copper 
implement  is  No.  167.  Skeleton  168  was  found  near  copper  awls. 
Skeleton  169  was  near  the  altar. 

September  4,  1891.  The  principal  feature  of  the  day's  work  was  the 
discovery  of  several  large  sheets  of  mica,  which  by  their  position 
illustrated  admirably  the  manner  in  which  this  layer  had  been  laid 
down.  Small  fragments  of  bone  awls  and  bones  of  animals  were  added 
to  the  collection. 

Tuesday,  September  8,  1891.  A  sectional  drawing  of  the  mound  at 
the  centre  stake  was  made.  This  drawing  gives  the  exact  position  of 
the  galena  found  yesterday  and  to-day.  Some  of  the  galena  was  covered 
by  the  mica  layer.  As  the  work  progressed  still  another  sketch  was 
made  to  show  where  the  mica  layer  terminated  on  the  east  side.  A 
layer  of  small  stones  is  also  shown,  together  with  an  ash  bed  and  post- 
hole.  A  number  of  bone  awls  were  secured.  These  were  so  calcined  by 
fire  that  they  were  in  several  hundred  fragments.  The  thick  ends  of 
these  needles  generally  lay  toward  the  north.  In  the  afternoon  a  skeleton 
was  discovered.  It  was  calcined  by  fire;  near  it  were  copper  ear-orna- 
ments, or  busks,  a  copper  celt,  and  a  large  copper  plate.  Sketches 
were  made  and  photographs  taken  of  the  copper  implements  by  Dr. 


92  Hopewell  Mound  Group 

Cresson  and  Mr.  Smith.  A  small  clay  altar  in  which  lay  some  calcined 
human  bones  was  discovered  about  2  p.  m.  Mica  ornaments  of  circular 
shape  were  found  near  the  copper  implements  (to  east  side). 

September  9,  1891.  Work  continued  on  Mound  No.  17.  Much  of 
interest  was  found,  such  as  fossil  shark  teeth  and  bone  disks.  Some  of 
the  former  were  saved  entire,  but  others,  having  been  burnt,  broke  in 
pieces.  Some  of  the  shark's  teeth  were  perforated.  The  ground  plan 
will  give  all  the  necessary  details  of  the  work  and  show  the  exact 
position  of  objects  found  within  the  mound.  Excavation  of  this  mound 
was  completed  this  afternoon.  The  mound  is  remarkable  in  that 
it  contained  so  much  mica.  The  sheets  have  been  estimated  at  three 
thousand  in  number.  They  filled  two  barrels  when  packed  for  ship- 
ment to  Chicago.  In  19 18,  one  or  two  of  these  large  crystals,  or  books 
were  measured  by  me  in  Field  Museum.  Some  of  them  were  50  cm 
in  diameter  and  15  cm  thick.  Many  of  them  were  26  cm  by  20  cm. 
There  are  also  twelve  lumps  of  galena  weighing  from  12  to  15  pounds, 
which  came  from  Mound  No.  17.  Plate  XXXIX  shows  a  part  of  the 
floor  of  No.  17  with  the  mica  layer  in  position. 

Excavation  of  Mound  No.  18. — Dr.  H.  T.  Cresson  had  joined  our 
party  a  few  days  previously,  and  on  the  morning  of  September  9  he 
staked  off  this  mound.  It  was  found  to  be  about  75  feet  longest  dia- 
meter by  55  feet  east  and  west,  and  3  feet  8  inches  in  height.  There  was 
an  altar  in  it,  the  base  of  which  was  1  foot  4  inches  long,  by  1  foot  3 
inches  in  width  and  2^4  inches  deep.  The  slope  leading  from  the 
base  up  to  the  basin  in  this  altar  varied  from  two  to  as  much  as  four  feet. 

On  September  10,  Dr.  Metz  and  Marshall  H.  Saville  came  to  camp. 
Dr.  Mete  represented  Professor  Putnam,  and  Mr.  Saville  took  photo- 
graphs. In  this  mound  there  were  some  incised  human  maxillaries 
(Fig.  10),  a  platform  or  monitor  pipe,  and  various  layers  of  different- 
colored  earth.  Except  calcined  bones  and  a  fragment  of  a  skeleton, 
nothing  else  of  consequence  was  found.  Dr.  Cresson  made  a  study  of 
these  cut  human  jaws,  giving  me  the  following  observations : — 

"It  will  be  interesting  to  mention  a  peculiar  habit  of  the  people  who 
erected  the  tumuli  at  Hopewell's  farm,  that  of  placing  alongside  of 
their  dead,  ornaments  made  of  the  superior  and  inferior  maxillary 
bones.  In  Mounds  Nos.  3,  18,  and  23  at  the  above  mentioned  earth- 
work, the  upper  jaw  was  placed  alongside  of  the  left  humerus  about 
four  inches  below  the  articulation  of  the  glenoid  process  of  the  scapula. 

Measurements  of  objects  in  the  collections  of  Field  Museum  of  Natural  History 
are  given  in  the  metric  system.  The  field-notes  follow  the  English  system,  and  it 
is  thought  best  to  retain  them  as  originally  made. 


Mound  No.  18 


93 


The  specimens  in  question  have  been  in  two  cases  cut  across  the  alveoli 
a  little  below  the  level  of  the  incssior  and  bicuspids,  and  in  another 
instance,  just  above.    The  work  of  cutting  across  the  bone  and  teeth 


Fig.    io. 
Cut   Human   Jaws  and   Perforated  Cranial  Bones  from   Mound    18. 

had  evidently  been  done  by  some  sharp  instrument,  probably  of  metal, 
It  has  been  suggested  that  the  specimens  had  been  sawed  across  and 
then  ground  down,  but  the  incisions  are  so  sharp,  and  the  marks  of  the 


94  Hopewell  Mound  Group 

instrument  with  cutting  edge  so  plain,  that  we  deem  this  to  be  im- 
possible. 

The  mound  had  apparently  been  examined,  and  the  altar  contents 
removed  by  Squier  and  Davis.  The  number  of  the  skeleton  was  170. 
We  had  begun  at  Fort  Ancient  to  number  skeletons  for  Professor 
Putnam,  and  continued  the  series  through  the  Oregonia  work  and  at 
Hopewell,  in  order  that  there  might  be  no  confusion  as  to  where  the 
skeletal  remains  were  found. 

Excavation  of  Mound  No.  19. — September  14..  The  men  dug 
out  Mound  No.  19,  which  appears  to  have  been  disturbed.  This  was  a 
small  mound  54  by  53  feet  and  3  feet  high.  It  contained  a  rude  stone 
layer  and  an  altar  of  clay  (Plate  XLI)  in  the  depression  of  which  were 
carbonized  bones,  some  human,  some  mica  and  galena,  fragments  of 
bone  implements,  and  two  flake  knives.  The  altar  was  taken  out  entire. 
As  it  was  only  partly  burnt  and  not  much  harder  than  sun-dried  brick, 
no  little  difficulty  was  experienced  in  removing  it.  It  was  not  shipped 
and  still  lies  in  the  mound,  boxed,  and  covered  with  three  feet  of  earth. 
This  is  mentioned,  since  the  boxed  altar  may  be  discovered  by  some 
future  explorer. 

Excavation  of  Mound  No.  20. — This  mound  is  one  of  a  group  of 
four,  numbered  9,  10,  11,  and  20,  which  form  almost  a  square.  It  is 
shown  in  Plate  XLIa.  It  was  about  56  by  50  feet,  and  did  not  appear 
to  have  been  disturbed.  On  the  first  day  of  exploration  five  skeletons, 
four  adults  and  a  child,  were  discovered.  Two  large  flat  stones,  placed 
side  by  side,  were  found  just  northwest  of  one  of  the  skeletons,  which 
was  badly  burned.  Copper  ear-ornaments  and  other  copper  objects 
were  found  with  several  of  the  skeletons,  also  circular  mica  ornaments 
or  disks,  and  copper  cones.  No.  176  was  the  skeleton  of  a  child,  said 
by  Dr.  Cresson  to  be  about  nine  years  old.  With  it  were  found  two 
shell  cups,  a  copper  celt,  a  crescent-shaped  copper  implement,  and 
copper  ear-busks  or  spools.  The  positions  of  the  eight  copper  ornaments 
found  with  this  child  were  listed  by  Dr.  Cresson  as  follows : — 

"The  first  discovered  lay  on  the  left  iliac  bone;  the  second,  5  inches 
below  the  trochanter  of  the  left  femur,  on  the  outer  side.  Another  lay 
just  above  the  left  patella.  Three  others  lay  around  the  hand  bones, 
viz.,  one  on  the  metacarpals  of  the  hand,  another  on  the  wrist,  and 
another  at  the  base  of  the  ulna.  On  the  outer  side  of  the  left  patella 
was  found  a  busk  of  copper.  Others  lay  on  the  metacarpals  of  the 
right  and  left  hands.  Around  the  right  wrist  was  a  copper  bracelet. 
Outside  the  left  wrist  lay  a  copper  celt,  with  a  second  half  way  up  the 
left  ulna.    Beads,  about  250  in  all,  were  found  around  the  neck  and  at 


Mounds  Nos.  19,  20,  21,  2  95 

the  base  of  the  right  humerus.  The  head  of  the  skeleton  was  toward 
the  north.     The  bones  were  much  decayed  and  could  not  be  saved." 

Large  bear's  teeth,  plated  with  copper,  were  found  on  either  side  of 
the  lower  jaw  of  skeleton  No.  177. 

Excavation  of  Mound  No.  21. — This  mound  was  examined  on 
September  17.  It  was  small,  and  had  been  previously  opened.  Nothing 
was  found. 

Excavation  of  Mound  No.  2. — According  to  Squier  and  Davis, 
this  mound  was  about  80  feet  in  diameter  and  6  to  7  feet  high.  Its 
diameter  had  been  greatly  increased  by  ploughing;  and,  at  the  time  of 
our  exploration,  I  should  say,  it  was  about  100  feet  wide  and  4  feet  high. 
Mr.  Poole,  the  oldest  resident  in  the  vicinity,  informed  me  that  he  was 
there  when  Squier  and  Davis  opened  it  in  1845-46,  and  that  they  took 
out  about  two  bushels  of  disks.  In  their  account  (p.  158)  they  estimate 
that  there  were  about  four  thousand  of  the  disks  deposited.  They 
removed  six  hundred.  The  survey  worked  from  September  17  to  21, 
removing  these  disks.  In  Plate  XLII  they  are  shown  stacked  by 
headquarters'  tent.  In  Plate  XLIII  a  large,  shouldered  spear  and 
several  disks  are  shown.  This  shouldered  spear-head,  which  was  given 
to  Mr.  Hopewell,  was  the  only  specialized  implement  in  the  entire 
mound. 

Dr.  Thomas  Wilson  of  the  Smithsonian  Institution  visited  the  Hope- 
well Group  in  October,  1891,  and  January,  1892.  At  that  time  I  had 
written  out  a  description  of  the  finding  of  the  disks.  Dr.  Holmes,  as 
stated  above  in  this  report,  loaned  to  me  Dr.  Wilson's  notes,  which 
were  compiled  by  him  immediately  on  his  return  to  Washington,  but 
were  never  published.  The  following  description  is  taken  from  Dr. 
Wilson's  report: — 

The  present  or  modern  height  was  scarcely  two  feet  above  the  sur- 
rounding level.1  The  ground  surrounding  it  was  in  Indian  corn  which 
had  to  be  purchased  and  cleared  off  before  operations  could  be  com- 
menced. This  being  done,  the  teams,  ploughs,  and  scrapers  were 
turned  in  on  Thursday  morning.  Before  noon,  they  had  scraped  away 
all  the  surplus  earth,  and  began  to  find  flint  disks.  The  description  of 
Squier  and  Davis,  and  what  they  had  found,  was  soon  verified,  together 
with  their  prophecy  as  to  what  would  be  found.  Flint  disks  were  found 
as  they  had  said;  the  teams  were  stopped,  and  the  digging  began  by 
hand,  when  the  disks  were  thrown  out  on  the  ground  around  the  mound 
They  were  found  piled,  a  half  dozen,  more  or  less,  in  each  pile  or  handful 

!He  means  it  was  2  feet  high,  after  our  exploration  was  completed. 


g6  Hopewell  Mound  Group 

and  were  arranged  after  the  fashion  of  herringbone  masonry.  The 
first  pile  of  a  half  dozen  were  set  flat  on  the  ground,  the  disks  being 
placed  horizontally;  the  next  pile  set  on  edge,  but  at  an  angle  at  prob- 
ably 45  degrees;  the  third  would  be  set  in  the  same  way,  but  cast  in 
the  other  direction,  and  the  fourth  would  be  again  horizontal,  and  so 
this  was  continued  over  the  surface  occupied  by  the  plan  of  the  mound. 
There  were  two,  one  atop  the  other.  It  is  not  to  be  supposed  that  they 
were  laid  with  regularity  indicated;  many  of  them  were  thrown  out  of 
place,  and  had  destroyed  the  regularity,  but  this  was  the  general  plan 
on  which  they  had  been  placed  at  the  making  of  the  mound.  The 
bottom  of  the  two  strata  of  flint  disks  was  about  two  feet  below  the 
surrounding  surface." 

We  commenced  taking  out  disks  Thursday  noon  and  continued 
until  Saturday  afternoon,  removing  the  enormous  number  of  7,232  by 
actual  count.  Squier  and  Davis  estimated  the  number  at  4000.  The 
work  had  been  completed  at  my  arrival,  and  the  flint  disks  were  laid 
out  preparatory  to  marking  and  boxing,  as  shown  in  the  photograph. 

The  following  table  gives  the  total  of  disks  from  the  mound : 

Excavated  from  the  mound  by  our  own  men      7232 

Taken  out  by  Squier  and  Davis 600 

Taken  out  by  Mr.  Steel      200 

Given  Mr.  Hopewell,  prior  to  official  count 80 

Later  found  upon  the  surface  near  the  mound 42 

From  other  sources      31 

Total 8185 

Excavation  of  Mound  No.  24. — This  was  not  a  large  mound,  and 
seems  to  have  been  disturbed  (Plate  XLIV).  Several  skeletons  were 
found  by  us.  No.  191  lay  about  ten  feet  southwest  of  the  centre  stake 
with  the  head  pointing  west.  A  detached  skull  was  found  about  two 
feet  from  it  on  the  south  side.  This  detached  skull  (No.  192)  was  a 
different  type  and  much  inferior  in  contour  with  a  lower  facial  angle. 
The  contrast  between  them  was  marked.  A  large  shell,  probably 
Buscyon,  lay  near  the  left  arm  of  No.  191,  and  two  shells  perforated 
in  the  ends,  shell  ornaments,  and  bear's  teeth  were  found  with  it.  The 
Cat.  No.  of  this  skeleton  is  40873;  that  of  the  detached  skull,  40169. 
A  charred  skeleton,  near  whose  wrist-bones  were  two  copper  ornaments, 
was  found  on  September  25,  and  the  next  day  two  more  skeletons  were 
discovered.    The  latter  were  on  the  base  line  of  the  mound,  3  feet,  6 


Mounds  Nos.  24  and  23  97 

inches  from  the  surface.  The  lower  jaw  and  right  radius  of  one  of  these 
(No.  195)  were  missing.  Two  other  cremated  skeletons  were  found  in 
this  mound,  likewise  some  small  shells  and  mica  ornaments. 

Excavation  of  Mound  No.  23  (Plate  XLVI). — This,  except  for 
No.  25,  was  the  largest  mound  opened.  It  was  reduced  to  within  four 
or  five  feet  of  the  base  line  with  teams  and  scrapers.  It  was  originally 
150  feet  long  and  from  10  to  12  feet  high.  Plate  XLV  shows  the  mound 
just  before  we  began  exploration.  The  excavation  of  this  mound 
occupied  the  expedition  from  September  23  to  October  10,  while  work 
upon  it  was  continued  until  the  20th  of  October. 

On  the  23rd  of  September,  seven  skeletons  were  discovered,  as 
follows : 

No.  184.     Head  west,  no  ornaments.    Bones  could  not  be  saved. 

No.  185  (Cat.  No.  40170).     Female,  head  S.  S.  E. 

No.  186.  Boy.  Bones  crushed  by  weight  of  earth.  With  this 
skeleton  were  five  stone  celts,  an  arrowhead,  cut  jaws  of  the  fox  and 
lynx,  and  some  bone  points. 

No.  187.     Old  man,  head  southeast.    No  ornaments;  one  bone  awl. 

No.  188  (Cat.  No.  40171).  Brachycephalic  head.  Head  E.  N.  E., 
left  humerus  perforated. 

No.  189  (Cat.  No.  40166).     Head  S.  E. 

No.  190  (Cat.  No.  40172).     Head  S.  E. 

September  24.  As  the  excavation  proceeded  downward,  one  noticed 
the  difference  in  color  between  the  different  layers  of  earth  in  the 
mound,  and  these  patches  of  different-colored  earth  suggest  that  it  had 
been  dumped  in  small  quantities.  Ashes  are  noticeable  at  the  west 
end  of  the  mound.  Some  skeletons  were  found  in  gravel.  This  gravel 
predominated  in  quantity  at  the  east  and  especially  toward  the  south 
side. 

September  25.  Large  holes  or  pits  were  discovered  in  the  north  side 
of  the  west  end  of  the  mound.  Another  was  found  near  the  centre  of 
the  east  end.  Whether  these  are  due  to  previous  excavation,  we  are 
unable  to  say;  but  they  do  not  appear  to  have  been  made  by  Squier 
and  Davis.  During  the  time  between  September  25  and  October  1,  a 
number  of  finds  were  made.  Two  altars,  shown  in  Plate  XLVI,  were 
discovered  10  feet  below  the  surface.  One  measured  27  by  22  inches, 
being  \}4  inches  deep.  These  altars  contained  nothing,  which  is  unusual 
in  a  mound  so  large. 


98  Hopewell  Mound  Group 

A  number  of  skeletons  were  found  at  the  following  depths : 


Cat.  No. 

Field  No. 

Depth  below  Surface 
Feet 

40190 

197 

10 

198 

8.9 

40187 

199 

10 

200 

10 

203 

10.9 

204 

10 

40185 

205 

10 

40186 

206 

9-9 

207 

9-9 

208 

10 

209 

11 

It  was  remarked  that  many  of  these  skeletons  were  charred.  Some 
of  them  had  been  laid  on  stone  hearths,  others  directly  in  the  fire,  and 
still  others  upon  baked  clay,  which  was  sufficiently  hot  to  char  the 
parts,  the  parts  underneath  leaving  the  chest  and  upper  bones  intact. 
Skeleton  No.  199  (Plate  XLVI)  was  found  near  an  altar.  A  large  ocean 
shell  and  two  copper  plates  were  with  it.  A  portion  of  a  leather  garment 
sewed  with  twisted  fibres  was  still  sticking  to  one  of  the  plates.  Mr. 
Willoughby  observed  a  mould  of  the  cord  of  leather  or  sinew  between 
the  holes  in  the  plate.  He  thinks  that  this  will  shed  light  on  the  method 
of  fastening  plates  to  the  person.  Skeleton  No.  207  had  copper  orna- 
ments near  the  radius  on  each  side,  and  a  number  of  pierced  wolf  and 
fox  teeth  (506)  around  the  neck.  It  required  at  least  one  hundred  and 
twenty-seven  of  the  animals  to  make  such  a  necklace.  With  skeleton 
No.  209  were  found  a  copper  plate,  two  pipes,  pearl  beads,  two  bear's 
teeth  ornamented  with  pearls,  and  others  with  holes  which  may  have 
originally  contained  pearls. 

It  is  worthy  of  note  that  skeletons  Nos.  197,203,  and  206  had  been 
charred  by  fire  and  the  bones  covered  with  a  dendritic  deposit  from  the 
iron  in  the  soil  above.  Some  of  this  deposit  resembled  breccia  from 
European  caves.  The  iron  breccia  of  this  mound  was  so  hard  that  we 
were  prevented  from  removing  skeletons  except  in  fragments. 

On  the  1  st  of  October  thirteen  skeletons  were  unearthed  by  the 
workmen,  viz.,  Nos.  210 — 222  inclusive.  No.  213  was  especially 
noticeable  on  account  of  the  objects  found  near  it.  One  bone  bead 
and  a  quantity  of  pearl  and  shell  beads  were  recovered,  while  a  number 


Mound  No.  23  99 

of  very  small  pearl  beads,  about  one-sixteenth  of  an  inch  in  diameter, 
were  still  retained  upon  the  original  string  of  twisted  vegetable  fibre. 
Two  uncut  bear's  teeth  and  three  cut  ones,  one  of  which  had  been  cut 
in  several  pieces,  were  found.  A  copper  plate  was  also  found,  likewise 
four  ear-ornaments,  one  on  either  side  of  the  head  and  one  in  each 
hand.  Pieces  of  finely  woven  textile  had  been  preserved  by  contact 
with  one  pair  of  these  ear-ornaments,  the  cloth  adhering  to  one  side 
of  the  ornaments,  being  coarser  than  that  on  the  opposite  side.  Upon 
one  side  of  the  plate,  the  curling  hair  of  some  animal,  probably  the 
buffalo,  has  been  preserved  by  the  salts  of  copper,  and  a  mould  of  what 
may  be  human  hair  is  seen  on  the  other  side.  Near  the  head  of  the 
skeleton  was  a  set  of  teeth  (superior  maxillary),  which  had  been  cut 
across  just  above  the  alveoli.  It  will  be  remembered  that  another  pair 
of  jaws  was  found  in  Mound  No.  18  in  which  the  same  peculiarity  was 
remarked.  Mr.  Acton,  who  gave  many  specimens  to  Squier  and  Davis, 
states  that  he  also  remarked  this  peculiarity,  and  that  thigh-bones  were 
also  "decorated  with  queer  designs  and  plated  with  copper."  The 
skeleton  (No.  213)  was  covered  by  an  immense  bed  of  clay  and  gravel 
at  least  10  feet  thick,  and  was  so  badly  crushed  that  it  could  only  be 
removed  in  fragments.  The  feet  were  missing.  Some  of  the  skeletons, 
on  the  lower  level,  rested  on  stones  showing  traces  of  hot  fires,  and  were 
slightly  charred  on  the  side  in  contact  with  them.  This  suggests  that 
they  were  laid  on  the  hearths  after  the  stones  had  been  considerably 
heated  and  the  ashes  raked  away.  Other  skeletons  were  found  in  the 
same  condition  noted  in  a  previous  day's  work,  being  covered  with  a 
cinder-like  incrustation  and  very  brittle.  In  the  afternoon,  Mr.  Williams 
found  a  shell  cup  4  feet,  6  inches  east  of  the  centre  stake  at  a  depth  of 
8  feet,  9  inches.  , 

On  the  2nd  of  October,  five  fragmentary  skeletons  were  found;  all 
according  to  Dr.  Cresson,  of  brachycephalic  type.  Between  October  10 
and  20  the  exploration  of  this  mound  was  completed.  Skeletons  Nos. 
223 — 236  were  discovered  together  with  a  number  of  objects  which  it 
is  not  necessary  to  describe.  It  was  observed  that  practically  all  the 
skulls  were  crushed,  probably  because  the  bodies  rested  on  the  hard 
floor  to  which  we  have  previously  referred.  In  some  instances  the 
crania  was  absolutely  decayed,  leaving  an  oval  white  streak  in  the 
ground.  The  teeth,  however,  were  preserved.  Dr.  Wilson  was  present 
during  the  exploration  of  this  mound,  being  particularly  interested  in 
the  numerous  depressions  commonly  known  as  post-holes.  He  says  of 
these,  "Although  there  was  none  or  but  slight  appearance  of  posts,  the 
holes  were  such  as  would  have  been  made  had  the  posts  been  stood 


ioo  Hopewell  Mound  Group 

up  or  driven  in ;  then  being  covered  by  the  mound  in  the  course  of  time 
they  rotted  away,  leaving  the  holes.  The  earth  had  not  caved  in 
around  them.  A  few  traces  of  decayed  wood  were  to  be  observed. 
These  post-holes  were  from  4  to  6  and  8  inches  in  diameter  and  from 
2  to  3  feet  deep.  They  were  in  groups  of  five  or  six,  and  apparently 
two  rows  of  them.  It  was  difficult  to  determine  their  position  with 
exactness.  The  appearance  of  these  post-holes  indicated  or  suggested 
that  logs  or  posts  of  wood  had  been  driven  in  to  make  a  surrounding 
vault  or  protection  for  the  body,  and  for  the  funeral  objects  which 
were  deposited  with  it.  Following  the  trench  as  it  was  cut  down,  it 
was  remarked  that  this  particular  mound  showed  that  which  was 
remarked  of  other  mounds  by  Squier  and  Davis,  and  others,  that  at 
two  or  three  feet  from  the  surface,  apparently  extending  all  around  the 
conical  form  of  the  mound,  there  had  been  a  layer  of  white  sand  or  fine 
gravel  from  one  to  three  inches  thick,  and  then  the  mound  had  been 
heaped  over  this  to  a  depth  of  three  or  four  feet.  In  the  centre  at  the 
top  of  the  mound,  this  white  sand  or  gravel  was  about  2  feet  below  the 
surface,  but  at  the  edges  it  was  as  much  as  5  feet  below  the  surface, 
due  probably  to  the  ploughing  and  erosion.  This  streak  of  gravel  was 
regular  and  continuous,  and  could  only  have  been  made  by  spreading 
the  gravel  over  the  mound,  after  it  was  thus  far  completed.  The  layer 
of  earth  which  was  on  top  of  the  sand  or  gravel,  the  stratum  which  was 
2  and  5  feet>  as  mentioned,  must  have  been  put  on  at  some  subsequent 
time,  but  how  long  subsequent,  no  one  can  possibly  tell.  For  the  most 
part,  this  strip  of  sand  or  gravel  showed  the  mound  to  have  been  a 
complete  or  perfect  cone,  but  in  some  places  on  the  sides  and  around 
the  edges  there  were  depressions  and  changes  from  the  regularity  of  the 
cone.  Other  mound  investigators  have  remarked  this  layer  of  sand  or 
gravel.  Squier  and  Davis  mention  various  instances.  Like  many  other 
peculiarities  of  the  mounds,  they  are  alike  in  general  features  and  yet 
differ  much,  in  details.  The  layers  of  sand  and  gravel  differ  naturally 
with  the  various  localities  from  which  they  come.  They  differ  in  num- 
ber, for  sometimes  there  may  be  only  one  such  layer,  and  other  times 
three  or  four.  Sometimes  they  extend  in  a  regular  and  continuous 
layer  over  the  mound,  and  at  others  they  are  broken  and  irregular. 
Sometimes  they  are  of  sand,  other  times  of  gravel,  and  again  are  of 
small  boulders,  etc." 

Students  unacquainted  with  the  exploration  of  large  mounds  would 
naturally  suppose  that  in  numbering  a  series  of  skeletons  or  deposits  we 
would  begin  at  one  end  of  the  base  line  and  number  the  skeletons  in 
order  of  their  position.    This  was  done  wherever  practicable,  but  it  is 


Mounds  Nos.  23,  3,  and  9  101 

sometimes  impossible.  Many  interments  are  made  in  loose  soft  soil, 
and,  in  case  of  rain,  the  water  collecting  in  the  trench  seeks  the  depres- 
sions in  which  the  skeletons  lie,  and  is  liable  to  ruin  the  skeleton  and 
the  more  fragile  objects  with  it.  The  skeletons  were  therefore  removed 
as  soon  as  possible  and  numbered  in  the  order  found.  At  times  when 
teams  and  scrapers  were  being  used  on  Mound  25,  later  to  be  described, 
the  shovelers  were  employed  in  digging  out  several  small  mounds. 

Excavation  of  Mound  No.  3. — In  this  mound  we  found  an  altar 
whose  contents  had  been  removed,  probably  by  Squier  and  Davis,  a 
copper  celt,  small  knives,  and  a  few  other  objects.  The  celt  was  con- 
cave on  one  side  and  convex  on  the  other,  and  so  finely  made  that  it 
seems  almost  impossible  that  it  could  have  been  fashioned  by  the  cold 
hammering  process.  The  metal  shows  the  peculiar  reddish  orange  color 
of  copper  that  has  been  fired.  Other  copper  implements  found  in  the 
group  are  very  highly  finished  and  show  the  same  color  below  the 
incrustation.  In  most  cases  the  laminar  structure  of  cold  beaten  copper 
seems  to  be  absent.  These  celts,  however,  may  have  been  associated 
with  charred  human  bones. 

Excavation  of  Mound  No.  9. — The  road  had  been  cut  through 
this  mound  so  that  little  was  left.  Squier  and  Davis'  finds  in  it  are 
interesting,  particularly  their  discoveries  of  obsidian.  In  their  report 
(p.  155)  they  write  as  follows: — 

"It  will  be  seen  that  this  mound  has  several  peculiar  features.  The 
altar  A,  instead  of  occupying  the  centre,  is  placed  considerably  toward 
one  side;  and  a  layer  of  charcoal  (C)  fills  the  corresponding  opposite 
side.  Over  the  altar  curves  a  stratum  of  sand,  and  over  the  layer  of 
charcoal  still  another,  as  exhibited  in  the  section.  This  altar  was  the 
smallest  met  with.  It  was  round,  not  measuring  more  than  2  feet 
across  the  top.  It  was  nevertheless  rich  in  remains.  Within  it  were 
found : 

(1)  Several  instruments  of  obsidian.  They  were  considerably 
broken  up,  but  have  been  so  much  restored  as  to  exhibit  pretty  nearly 
their  original  form.   Too  large  for  arrowheads,  and  too  thin  and  slender 

•for  points  of  spears,  they  seem  to  have  been  designed  for  cutting 
purposes. 

(2)  Several  scrolls  tastefully  cut  from  thin  sheets  of  mica.  They 
are  perforated  with  small  holes,  as  if  they  had  been  attached  as  orna- 
ments to  a  robe  of  some  description. 

(3)  Traces  of  cloth,  small  portions  of  which,  though  completely 
carbonized,  were  found,  still  retaining  the  structure  of  the  thread. 


102  Hopewell  Mound  Group 

This  appeared  to  have  been  made  of  some  fine  vegetable  fibre.  It 
was  what  is  technically  termed  'doubled  and  twisted,'  and  was  about  the 
size  of  fine  pack-thread. 

(4)  A  considerable  number  of  ivory  or  bone  needles,  or  graving- 
tools,  about  one-tenth  of  an  inch  thick.  Their  original  length  is  not 
known.  Several  fragments  were  found  two  and  three  inches  long. 
Some  have  flat  cutting  points,  the  points  of  others  were  round  and 
sharp ;  some  were  straight,  others  slightly  bent. 

(5)  A  quantity  of  pearl  beads;  an  article  resembling  the  cover  of  a 
small  vessel,  carved  from  stone;  also  some  fragments  of  copper,  in  thin, 
narrow  slips. 

"There  were  no  relics  of  any  kind  found  amongst  the  charcoal.  The 
layer  of  this  material  was  not  far  from  six  feet  square.  It  had  been 
heaped  over  while  burning." 

Mound  No.  5. — In  this  we  found  nothing  of  consequence.  Yet  in 
1845  ^  was  an  important  mound,  on  which  Squier  and  Davis  report  as 
follows : — 

"In  this  instance  the  altar  was  covered  with  stones;  and  instead  of 
the  usual  sand  stratum,  there  was  found  a  layer  of  large  flat  stones,  cor- 
responding to  it.  The  altar  A  was  composed  of  earth  elevated  two  and 
a  half  feet  above  the  original  level  of  the  soil,  and  was  five  feet  long  by 
three  feet  four  inches  broad,  the  sides  sloping  at  an  angle-  of  nearly  30 
degrees.  It  was  faced  on  the  top  and  on  the  sides  with  slabs  of  stone, 
quite  regular  in  form  and  thickness,  and  which,  although  not  cut  by 
an  instrument,  were  closely  fitted  together,  as  shown  in  the  supple- 
mentary section  of  the  altar  A.  The  stone  is  the  Waverly  sandstone, 
underlying  the  coal  series,  thin  strata  of  which  cap  the  hills  bordering 
these  valleys.  The  altar  bore  the  marks  of  fire;  and  a  few  fragments  of 
the  mound-builders'  ornaments,  a  few  pearl  beads,  etc.,  were  found  on 
and  around  it.  The  original  deposit  had  probably  been  removed  by 
the  modern  Indians,  who  had  opened  the  mound  and  buried  one  of  their 
dead  on  the  slope  of  the  altar.  The  stones  composing  the  layer  corre- 
sponding to  the  sand  stratum  were  two  or  three  feet  deep,  presenting  the 
appearance  of  a  wall  which  had  fallen  inwards." 

Excavation  of  Mound  No.  8. — Three  fragmentary  skeletons  were 
found  in  this  mound.  The  field-notes  mention  that  more  than  half  the 
bones  were  missing.  With  skeleton  No.  241  there  were  large  sheets  of 
mica.  A  short  distance  away  was  found  a  nodule  of  Tennessee  flint 
which  weighed  between  20  and  30  pounds.    The  disks  found  in  Mound 


Mounds  Nos.  5,  11,  and  25  103 

No.  2  were  of  this  material,  but  this  was  the  only  complete  nodule 
found  during  the  exploration  of  the  Hopewell  group. 

Mound  No.  11 — This  mound  was  not  explored,  as  it  was  in  the 
yard  of  Mr.  Beard,  tenant  of  the  Hopewell  estate,  and  he  requested  that 
there  be  no  disturbance  of  his  lawn. 

Excavation  of  Mound  No.  25. — It  was  well  toward  the  middle  of 
October  when  we  completed  the  exploration  of  Mound  No.  23  and  filled 
the  excavation.  I  find  in  the  field-notes  that  the  owner,  Mr.  M.  C. 
Hopewell,  was  exceedingly  kind  and  courteous.  Our  teams  dropped 
earth  about  his  clover  fields  and  destroyed  crops,  yet  he  entered  no 
complaint.  It  had  been  stated  by  one  or  two  archaeologists  and,  I 
believe,  by  a  geologist  as  well,  that  Mound  No.  25  was  too  large  to 
have  been  the  work  of  human  hands.  When  Dr.  Wilson  visited  our 
camp  for  the  first  time,  we  discussed  whether  it  should  be  explored. 
At  Dr.  Wilson's  request,  a  large  shaft  was  sunk  in  the  centre  of  the 
mound.  In  his  report  he  states  that  it  was  6  feet  deep;  but,  as  I  recall 
it,  it  was  about  10  feet  deep.  At  the  bottom  of  the  shaft  we  found 
charcoal  and  ashes,  proving  that  the  elevation  was  artificial. 

It  is  very  easy  in  these  days  of  liberal  appropriations  for  field  opera- 
tions to  negotiate  the  examination  of  large  mounds,  but  up  until  the 
time  of  the  Hopewell  survey  no  mound  more  extensive  than  No.  23 
had  been  fully  excavated  by  any  one.  In  fact,  more  actual  work  was 
done  on  the  twenty-two  mounds  of  the  group  than  has  since  been 
applied  elsewhere  by  other  observers.  This  does  not  imply  that  single 
tumuli,  or  even  several  of  them,  have  not  been  trenched  and  hand- 
troweled  more  extensively.  On  the  contrary,  Mr.  C.  B.  Moore's  work 
in  the  south  and  much  of  Professor  W.  C.  Mills'  labors  in  Ohio  were 
carried  out  more  slowly  and  in  greater  detail. 

While  the  men  were  leveling  Mound  No.  23  and  excavating  Mounds 
3,  9,  and  5,  the  teams  were  put  to  work  on  Mound  25.  The  larger 
end,  which  was  23  feet  high,  lay  to  the  east.  Plate  XLVII  is  a  copy 
of  the  original  outline  map  prepared  by  Dr.  Wilson  and  Clinton  Cowen, 
after  exploration.  The  only  change  I  have  made  is  to  call  the  elevation 
of  section  1,  23  feet.  This  is  exact,  and  was  obtained  by  measuring 
from  the  bottom  of  our  trench  to  the  highest  point.  In  view  of  the  heavy 
expense  involved  and  the  uncertainty  as  to  what  the  mound  might  con- 
tain, it  was  decided  to  work  No.  25  in  sections  or  trenches,  beginning 
at  the  eastern  end.  After  running  the  first  trench,  we  would  skip  the 
next  sector  (7)  and  trench  2,  omit  the  next,  and  take  4.  In  this  way  we 
would  be  able  to  determine  the  character  of  the  mound  and  not  expend 
money  without  results.     After  completing  trench  4,  which  was  some 


104  Hopewell  Mound  Group 

distance  from  the  western  end  of  the  mound,  we  dug  out  trench  6, 
which  lay  between  sectors  3  and  2.  The  last  sector,  7,  which  was 
between  1  and  2,  was  not  excavated,  neither  was  section  5.  About  one 
third  of  Mound  23  thus  remains  unexplored.  This  explanation  is 
necessary  in  case  the  Ohio  State  Archaeological  Society  should  complete 
the  exploration  at  some  future  time.  Rain  and  snow  caused  great 
inconvenience  in  moving  the  earth,  particularly  at  the  north  and  south 
ends  of  the  cuts.  Here  the  earth  became  mud,  and  it  is  quite  possible 
that  we  did  not  remove  some  burials  in  the  southern  extension  of  one 
or  two  trenches. 

From  October  24  to  28  I  was  called  to  Cincinnati  and  Xenia.  Dur- 
ing this  period  Dr.  Cresson  had  charge  of  our  work.  This  is  here 
mentioned,  since  there  is  some  uncertainty  with  reference  to  the  extent 
of  the  two  bowlder  mosaics  or  effigies  found  on  the  south  and  southeast 
slope  of  Mound  No.  25.  The  first  section  in  No.  25  was  made  at  the 
highest  point  (23  feet),  and  the  cut  was  about  50  feet  wide  at  the  top, 
and  varied  from  ^3  to  38  feet  wide  at  the  bottom.  It  was  necessary 
to  make  the  sides  sloping,  otherwise  the  earth  would  cave  in,  as  it 
was  loose.  The  scrapers  turned  up  a  number  of  bowlders,  such  as 
had  been  previously  found  in  Mound  23,  and  some  layers  of  coarse 
gravel  appeared.  The  persistent  number  of  these  bowlders  and  their 
more  or  less  uniform  size  led  Dr.  Cresson  to  examine  more  carefully. 
They  lay  from  18  inches  to  3  feet  below  the  surface.  The  bowlders 
themselves  were  evenly  laid,  but  the  variation  in  the  thickness  of 
covering  soil  was  due  to  the  cultivation  of  the  mound  by  fanning.  In 
the  light  of  modern  scientific  work,  one  may  say  that  the  top  soil  should 
have  been  removed  for  a  distance  of  two  hundred  by  a  hundred  feet, 
and  these  bowlder  mosaics  uncovered  and  studied  in  detail.  Yet,  this 
could  not  have  been  done  for  the  reason  that  it  would  involve  great 
expense  and  delay.  Furthermore,  as  stated  above,  Cresson  did  not 
realize  their  importance  until  they  had  been  considerably  damaged  by 
the  teams.  Dr.  W.  H.  Holmes  visited  the  site  when  they  had  been 
partly  removed,  and  again  on  his  way  east  about  October  29.  On  my 
return  I  saw  such  as  remained  of  these,  being  a  portion  of  the  leg,  tail, 
and  neck  of  the  animals.  Cresson  states  that  they  were  about  a  hundred 
feet  in  length.  He  executed  a  drawing  of  them  with  detailed  measure- 
ments. Two  or  three  local  newspaper  notices  of  our  work,  published  at 
the  time,  refer  to  the  bowlder  mosaics.  An  outline  sketch  was  pre- 
sented by  me  in  the  Antiquarian  of  September,  1897,  but  is  not  suffi- 
ciently accurate  to  warrant  reproduction  here. 

On  November  3,  the  bottom  of  cut  1  in  Mound  No.  25  was  reached; 


Mound  No.  25  105 

nothing  was  found,  save  a  unio  shell  and  fragments  of  human  tibia. 
The  field-notes  state,  "The  bowlder  mosaics  have,  however,  amply- 
repaid  for  the  trouble  and  expense."  It  is  most  unfortunate  that  a  plan 
of  them  is  not  available  for  reproduction.  The  work  in  the  first  section 
in  Mound  No.  25  was  expensive,  and  there  being  no  results,  I  at  once 
consulted  with  my  friend,  Dr.  Thomas  Wilson.  He  advised  that  we 
omit  the  next  cut  (No.  7)  and  take  No.  2,  which  lay  some  distance 
toward  the  west  (Plate  XLII).  This  was  done.  Teams  were  put  to 
work,  and  the  shovelers  transferred  to  smaller  mounds. 

November  12.  The  second  cut  in  Mound  25  had  reached  a  point 
but  three  feet  from  the  base  line.  Decayed  skeletons  noted  in  several 
places  in  the  course  of  sinking  experimental  shafts  led  us  to  exercise 
great  care.  Abandoning  teams,  we  put  in  the  men  with  shovels,  and 
completed  the  examination  of  the  remainder  of  the  cut  by  hand.  In 
this  cut  (as  in  the  east-end  section) ,  hundreds  of  small  masses  of  various 
colored  earths  were  observed:  short,  irregular  layers  of  sand  also  extend- 
ed in  various  directions.  A  very  singular  feature  in  the  mound  (alike 
in  detail  with  No.  23)  was  the  partially  hollow  pits  or  holes  having 
dome-like  roofs.  It  seems  that  the  builders  erected  little  frameworks 
of  small  poles,  bent  together  at  the  top,  and  enclosing  a  space  of  the 
size  of  an  ordinary  tobacco  hogshead,  over  each  skeleton.  The  earth 
was  heaped  above.  In  the  case  of  weaker  domes,  the  weight  of  the 
earth  above  would  crush  them  flat;  but  some  of  the  structures  were 
composed  of  two  or  three  inch  saplings,  and  resisted  the  pressure  for 
many  years.  Then  they  caved  in.  As  the  earth  above  had  become 
more  or  less  caked  or  hardened,  an  arch  was  thus  formed;  and  in  many 
instances  the  earth  had  not  completely  filled  these  hollows.  The  horses 
engaged  in  scraping  broke  through  one  of  these  holes,  and  were  impris- 
oned up  to  their  necks  for  several  minutes,  as  some  of  the  peculiar 
dome-shaped  affairs  were  several  feet  in  height  and  diameter. 

We  now  present  the  notes  on  excavation  of  cuts  2,  3,  4,  and  6. 
With  few  changes  or  expansion,  these  were  taken  from  Dr.  Dorsey's 
copy  of  the  original  field-book.  It  is  possible  that  all  of  the  material 
was  not  taken  out  of  cut  No.  6  or  cut  No.  4.  The  fact  will  be  deter- 
mined when  the  exploration  of  the  mound  is  completed  at  some  future 
time.  The  walls  frequently  caved  in,  due  to  winter  rains,  and  the  work 
from  November  20  to  February  10  was  carried  on  under  great  diffi- 
culties. Previously,  no  survey  had  conducted  explorations  through  an 
Ohio  winter. 

On  November  12  about  8  a.m.,  the  second  cut  reached  a  depth  of 
about  eighteen  feet.     This  was  near  the  bottom,  and  four  skeletons 


106  Hopewell  Mound  Group 

(as  shown  in  Plate  XLVIII)  Nos.  242,  243,  244,  and  245,  were  uncovered. 
At  this  point  we  reached  a  concrete  of  small  gravel  stones  which  had 
been  cemented  together  by  the  infiltration  of  iron  from  the  soil  above, 
forming  thick  sheets  and  slabs  through  which  it  was  almost  impossible 
to  penetrate.  This  being  removed  by  dint  of  hard  labor,  what  may  be 
termed  a  mosaic  of  red,  yellow,  and  purplish  colored  earth  was  encoun- 
tered. These  masses  of  earth  were  so  numerous,  and  of  such  definite 
shape,  that,  after  a  careful  examination,  we  have  come  to  the  conclusion, 
that  they  were  intended  to  represent  certain  forms  and,  although  larger 
and  much  cruder,  were  probably  not  unlike  the  sand  paintings  made  by 
the  Navajo  and  some  other  tribes. 

When  this  earth  had  been  removed,  three  skeletons,  Nos.  242,  243, 
and  244,  were  found.  Nos.  242  and  243  lay  together  upon  a  raised 
bench  of  hard  baked  clay  8  feet,  5  inches  long  and  5  feet,  10  inches  wide. 
The  bench  was  surrounded  by  a  gutter  which  varied  in  width  on  the 
different  sides.  Its  maximum  width  was  1  foot,  4  inches;  and  its  mini- 
mum, 7  inches,  with  a  depth  of  from  3  to  8  inches.  This  gutter  was 
filled  with  a  peculiar  mixture  of  brown  clay  and  ashes.  Outside  the 
gutter  were  four  post-holes,  irregularly  arranged,  which  were  6-8  inches 
in  diameter  and  2-3  feet  deep.  Skeleton  No.  244  lay  on  a  similar  bench 
which  was  connected  with  the  one  just  described.  The  dimensions  of 
this  bench  were  8  feet,  4  inches  by  3  feet,  9  inches,  and  it  was  surrounded 
b}r  a  gutter  of  baked  clay  filled  with  clay  and  ash,  as  in  the  preceding 
example. 

An  interesting  series  of  implements  were  found  in  connection  with 
the  two  burials.  No.  242  had  a  large  pile  of  beads,  pearl  and  other- 
wise, lying  beside  the  head,  a  round  ball  and  spoon-shaped  ornament 
of  copper  in  the  right  hand,  and  a  spool-shaped  ornament  of  copper 
near  the  left  femur.  No.  243  had  a  large  copper  plate,  badly  broken, 
on  the  left  side  of  the  head,  a  number  of  beads  on  the  right  side  of  the 
body,  a  spool-shaped  copper  ornament  near  the  left  femur,  and  a  ball 
and  spoon-shaped  ornament  of  copper  in  the  left  hand.  A  few  beads 
were  found  on  the  left  side  of  skeleton  No.  244.  It  was  evident  from 
the  position  of  the  post-holes  associated  with  the  benches  that  small 
structures  had  been  erected  over  them,  probably  to  protect  the  dead 
during  the  building  of  the  mound.  A  little  south  and  west  of  the 
benches  there  were,  traces  of  a  fireplace  7  by  7  feet,  the  cinders  being 
about  6  inches  deep.  West  of  this  fireplace,  upon  its  outer  edge,  there 
was  a  small  mosaic  of  fine  stones.  About  4  feet,  8  inches  south  of  the 
fireplace  was  a  layer  of  stones  in  the  form  of  a  semi-circle.  9  feet 
southwest  of  this  was  discovered  still  another  layer  of  istones  which  had 


Mound  No.  25  107 

been  laid  with  so  much  regularity  that  it  was  impossible  not  to  remark 
its  intentional  shape.     It  seems  evident  that  mosaics  of  many  definite 
shapes  were  built  at  the  base  of  these  mounds,  although  hitherto  these 
have  been  generally  overlooked  by  archaeologists. 
Other  skeletons  found  in  this  section  were : — 

No.  245.  This  lay  beside  No.  246,  the  heads  of  both  being  toward 
the  west.  A  flint  knife  lay  under  its  head,  many  beads  around  the 
neck,  and  a  few  on  the  wrist.  A  beautiful  bone  awl  and  some  polished 
bone  piercers  lay  beneath  the  hand.  With  No.  246  were  two  spool- 
shaped  copper  ornaments  and  many  beads.  Both  skeletons  lay  in  soft 
earth,  on  the  base  line. 

No.  247  (Cat.  No.  40167)  lay  with  the  head  toward  the  west.  With 
it  were  found  a  copper  spool,  cut  and  polished  bear's  teeth,  many  large 
beads,  peculiar  bark,  and  some  other  objects  of  interest. 

No.  248  (Cat.  No.  4015 1)  lay  with  the  head  southeast.  Another 
skeleton,  with  the  head  in  the  same  direction,  lay  to  the  west  of  it. 
The  skeleton,  which  was  badly  decayed,  was  5  feet,  11  inches  long. 
Associated  with  it  were  some  very  remarkable  objects.  At  the  right 
shoulder  lay  a  large  platform  pipe  and  a  beautiful  agate  spear-head. 
A  copper  plate  lay  on  the  breast,  and  another  on  the  abdomen,  while 
a  third  lay  under  the  hips.  These  plates,  when  lifted,  were  found  to 
have  preserved  not  only  cloth  and  sinews,  but  portions  of  the  muscles 
of  the  individual.  Cut,  sawed  and  split  bears'  teeth  covered  the  chest 
and  abdomen,  and  several  spool-shaped  ornaments  and  buttons  of 
copper  were  found  among  the  ribs.  The  body  had  apparently  been 
dressed  in  a  cloth  garment,  extending  from  the  neck  to  the  knees,  upon 
which  had  been  sewn  several  thousand  beads,  some  of  pearl  and  others 
of  shell.  Upon  the  skirt  of  the  garment  had  been  sewn  some  of  the 
largest  and  most  beautiful  pearl  beads  found  in  any  of  the  mounds, 
together  with  bears'  teeth,  etc. 

The  head  had  been  decorated  with  a  remarkable  head-dress  of 
wood  and  copper  (Plates  XLIX  and  L,  and  Fig.  11).  The  mass  of 
copper  in  the  centre  was  originally  in  the  form  of  a  semi-circle  reaching 
from  the  lower  jaw  to  the  crown  of  the  head.  It  had  been  crushed  flat 
by  the  weight  of  the  earth,  but  part  of  the  original  contour  was  still 
apparent.  The  antler-shaped  ornaments  were  made  of  wood  encased 
in  sheets  of  copper,  one-sixteenth  of  an  inch  thick.  They  originally  had 
four  prongs  of  nearly  equal  length.  Willoughby  says  with  reference  to 
this  object : — 

"The  carved  head-plate  had  been  flattened  and  broken,  and  the 


io8 


Hopewell  Mound  Group 


antlers  turned  back  by  the  superincumbent  weight  of  earth.  The  head- 
plate  was  originally  of  the  form  illustrated  in  Fig.  12a,  and  covered  the 
head  from  the  forehead  to  the  base  of  the  skull,  and  the  branching 
antlers  probably  rose  perpendicularly.  In  the  construction  of  the 
antlers  the  aboriginal  artisan  first  selected  limbs  having  the  proper 
curve  and  the  required  number  of  branches  similarly  arranged.    These 


Fig.   11. 
Head-dress  on  Skeleton  248. 

were  cut  to  a  suitable  form  and  carefully  covered^ with  thin  copper. 
The  bases  of  the  antlers  were  perforated  laterally  and  secured  beneath 
the  head-plate."  v 

Eleven  skeletons   (Nos.   249-259)  were  found  in  Section  2,  with 
which  there  were  no  objects.    All  were  extremely  decayed  and  could 


Mound  No.  25  109 

not  be  preserved.  Section  3  was  reduced  to  within  5  feet  of  the  base 
line  with  scrapers.  Various  patches  and  masses  of  colored  earth  were 
observed,  as  in  previous  excavations.  There  were  many  layers  and 
deposits  of  gravel,  some  long,  some  short,  and  all  more  or  less  curved. 
Near  the  centre  of  the  section,  4  feet  from  the  base  line,  were  found  one 
hundred  and  twenty  pieces  of  sheet  copper.  They  were  all  laid  flat, 
and  occupied  a  space  3  feet  long  by  2  feet  wide,  with  layers  of  bark 
above  and  below.  There  were  no  skeletal  remains  connected  with  this 
deposit,  nor  was  any  altar  found  near  it.    The  bark  was  exceedingly 


Fig.  12a. 
Head-dress  of  Copper  from  Skeletons  260  and  261. 

fragile  and  crumbled,  notwithstanding  our  efforts  to  preserve  fragments. 
Many  of  the  plates  were  worked  into  various  patterns.  Very  few  of 
them  were  of  forms  known  to  exist  in  Ohio,  the  greater  part  of  the 
designs  being  unique.  The  field  list  is  as  follows:  A  long  mass  of  copper 
covered  with  wood  on  one  side,  squares  and  five  other  traceable  things 
on  the  reverse;  eighteen  single  copper  rings,  two  of  which  are  small; 
double  copper  rings;  one  set  of  three  and  one  set  of  two;  five  saucer- 
shaped  disks;  saw-shaped  design,  arrowhead,  and  other  unknown  things 
massed  together;  one  combination  design  of  circles  and  bars;  smaller 
mass  of  copper,  wheels,  etc.;  two  fragmentary  fish,  and  one  whole  fish 
resembling  the  red-horse ;  two  diamond-shaped  stencils  of  copper ;  three 
long  copper  plates,  one  of  them  perforated;  two  swastika  crosses;  four 


no  Hopewell  Mound  Group 

copper  spool-shaped  ornaments,  two  with  four  holes  in  each;  one  mass 
of  ten  little  copper  circles;  four  comb-shaped  or  bear  effigies;  two 
spoon-shaped  pieces  of  copper;  forty  pieces  of  copper,  squares,  circles, 
etc.,  many  fragmentary;  eleven  pieces  showing  semi-circles,  straight 
edges,  squares,  etc.,  one  small  cross  (with  two  arms). 

The  deposit  was  photographed  in  mass,  as  the  edge  of  a  scraper  had 
caught  and  turned  over  several  of  the  plates,  but  a  careful  examination 
indicated  that  they  were  not  placed  in  any  special  position,  being  simply 
put  down  after  some  interments  below  had  been  placed.  Two  skele- 
tons, Nos.  260  and  261,  lay  together  near  the  base  line  with  the  heads 
west.  The  mass  of  material  deposited  with  them  exceeds  that  associated 
with  any  other  burial  so  far  discovered  in  the  United  States.  The 
objects  were  laid  so  as  to  form  a  rectangle  7  feet  long  and  5  feet  wide, 
and  were  frequently  so  closely  spaced  as  to  overlap  one  another.  The 
most  remarkable  find  was  a  copper  celt  22  inches  long,  which  weighed 
38  pounds.    In  spite  of  its  size  it  was  very  symmetrical. 

The  objects  covering  the  two  skeletons  were  as  follows:  Sixty-six 
copper  celts,  ranging  in  length  from  i}4  to  22^2  inches;  one  stone 
celt,  n  inches  long;  twenty-three  copper  plates,  mostly  fragmentary, 
and  a  great  number  of  pieces;  one  very  large  jaw;  a  curious  copper 
head-ornament;  a  broken  shell;  some  very  fine  pearls,  pearl  and  shell 
beads,  and  teeth;  carved  bones  and  bone  fragments;  effigies;  meteoric 
iron,  partly  worked  copper,  etc. ;  and  colored  earth.  Several  other  burials 
were  found  in  Section  3.  No.  264,  an  adult,  lay  with  the  head  east.  A 
copper  celt  la}7  under  the  head,  and  another  under  the  right  hand.  A 
flint  drill  lay  beside  the  head,  and  a  number  of  beads  around  the  neck. 
A  mass  of  partly  hammered  copper  lay  by  the  left  side.  The  finding 
of  a  drill  with  a  burial  seems  to  be  unique.  Finely  woven  cloth  and 
fragments  of  bark  adhered  to  one  of  the  celts. 

Skeletons  Nos.  265  and  266  lay  side  by  side  on  blocks  of  earth 
surrounded  by  trenches.  Their  heads  were  west,  but  the  skull  of  No. 
266  was  missing.  Under  the  head  of  No.  265  there  was  a  fragmentary 
bird-like  (eagle?)  effigy  of  copper.  Fine  fur  adhered  to  its  surface. 
Several  of  these  bird  effigies  of  thick  sheet  copper  were  found  in  Mound 
25,  but  cannot  be  restored.  Willoughby  thinks  they  consisted  of  a  head 
and  neck,  the  latter  ending  in  a  handle.  Skeleton  No.  267  lay  with 
the  head  west.  A  copper  ear-bob  and  a  few  beads  were  found  with  it. 
Skeleton  No.  268  (Cat.  No.  40178)  lay  with  the  head  to  the  west.  A 
few  beads  were  found,  while  a  copper  plate  lay  under  the  hips.  On  the 
perforations  of  this  plate  were  a  few  small  mica  scales,  possibly  remains 
of  ornaments  fastened  to  the  plate. 


Mound  No.  25  in 

"Above  and  below  the  perforations  is  a  crescent-shaped  mark 
caused  by  the  contact  of  some  substance  other  than  mica.  To  the 
inner  edge  of  one  of  the  perforations  a  cord  of  sinew  still  adheres,  and 
near  the  corresponding  edge  of  the  other  hole  the  marks  of  a  similar 
cord  appear.  This  cord  of  sinew  may  have  attached  the  plate  to  the 
person,  or  may  have  served  to  fasten  the  small  ornaments  to  the  copper 
plate.  Upon  the  reverse  side  of  this  plate  pieces  of  leather  adhere,  and 
the  impressions  of  cloth  are  to  be  seen  in  the  copper  salts.  This  speci- 
men shows  very  clearly  the  laminations  caused  by  hammering." 

Other  burials  were : 

No.  269  (Cat.  No.  40179).  Head  west.  Shell,  copper  plate,  and 
beads  near  head. 

No.  270.  Head  west.  Around  the  skull  a  copper  axe,  two  hundred 
beads,  cut  mica  ornaments,  bear's  teeth  with  pearls  inserted  in  them, 
decayed  bark,  and  a  copper  plate. 

No.  271.     Head  west.     A  few  beads  and  a  piece  of  mica. 

Partially  cremated.     No  objects. 
No  objects. 
Two  copper  ear-bobs  and  a  stone  celt. 
No  finds,  but  pieces  of  coal,  sheets  of  mica, 
and  a  small  pipe  were  found  in  an  ash  pit  near  it. 

No.  277.     Head  north.     Copper  plate  under  head. 

No.  278.  Head  east.  The  remarkable  incised  portion  of  a  human 
femur,  shown  in  Plate  LXXXII,  No.  1,  was  taken  from  beside  the  head 
of  this  skeleton.  A  pair  of  shell  ear-pendants  was  found  near  the  neck. 
It  is  interesting  to  note  that  a  similar  ornament  is  represented  in  the 
lobe  of  the  ear  of  the  carved  human  figure  illustrated  in  Fig.  68.  A 
number  of  small  pearl  beads,  two  copper  ear-ornaments  of  the  usual 
form,  several  perforated  bear's  teeth,  two  of  which  were  inlaid  with 
pearls,  and  the  large,  finely  executed  imitation  bear's  tooth  of  antler 
(Fig.  58,  on  p.  159)  were  also  obtained  with  this  skeleton.  There  was 
also  a  remarkable  human  effigy  of  cannel  coal. 

Five  additional  skeletons  were  found  in  the  banks  of  Section  3  on 
the  base  line.  The  banks  had  to  be  considerably  undermined  to  get 
them  out ;  and  for  this  reason  one  of  these  burials  is  shown  in  the  edge 
of  Section  6,  three  in  the  edge  of  Section  5,  and  one  in  the  north  end  of 
Section  3.  No.  279  lay  with  the  head  west.  Three  sheets  of  mica  were 
under  the  skull,  three  lumps  of  galena  on  the  shoulders,  and  a  small 
pyrula  shell  near  the  hips.  No.  280  lay  with  the  head  south.  The 
skeleton  had  almost  disappeared,  but  was  evidently  that  of  an  adult. 
A  number  of  beads  were  around  the  neck.    No.  281  lay  on  the  edge  of 


No. 

272. 

Head  north. 

No. 

273- 

Head  north. 

No. 

274. 

Head  west. 

No. 

275- 

Head  north. 

112 


Hopewell  Mound  Group 


Section  5,  near  No.  283.  The  following  objects  were  found  with  the 
former:  Three  copper  plates,  one  of  which  lay  beneath  the  hips, 
another  below  the  shoulders,  and  a  third  under  the  head,  two  of  these, 
being  the  largest  found;  a  copper  helmet-shaped  head-dress;  copper 
ear-ornaments;  a  clay  hemisphere  covered  with  metal;  a  number  of 
copper  beads,  the  first  found  in  this  mound;  a  finely  carved  section  of 
a  human  femur;  a  portion  of  a  delicately  wrought  ornament  of  tortoise 
shell  (Fig.  126).  The  same  carved  form  appears  upon  both  sides  of  this 
fragment,  which  represents  but  a  small  portion  of  the  object.  Unfortu- 
nately, the  remaining  portion  of  the  carving  is  so  badly  disintegrated 
and  broken  that  it  is  impossible  to  ascertain  its  original  outline.  Articles 
cut  from  tortoise  shell  have  also  been  taken  from  the  Turner  group  of 
mounds,  and  from  the  stone  graves  of  Tennessee.  A  number  of  other 
objects  were  scattered  irregularly  over  the  chest. 


Fig.  126. 
Ornament  of  Tortoise  Shell  Found  with  Skeleton  281. 


A  bird  effigy  and  an  effigy  of  an  otter  or  beaver,  both  carved  in 
bone,  were  found  by  the  side  of  the  head.  The  following  description  of 
these  objects  is  taken  from  the  notes  and  observations  of  C.  C.  Wil- 
loughby. 

The  hollow  effigies  of  the  same  class,  as  those  later  to  be  described 
and  illustrated,  were  taken  from  near  the  head  of  the  skeleton.  The 
one  shown  in  Plate  LXXXIII,  No.  i,  has  the  notched  raptorial  beak  and 
uncovered  cere  of  the  hawk.  The  eye  cavities  are  large,  and  probably 
contained  pearls.  The  incised  lines  indicating  the  feathers  of  the  wings 
and  tail  are  even  and  well  cut.  Unlike  most  of  the  carvings  of  this  kind, 
the  back  is  not  perforated,  but  a  hole  was  drilled  upon  each  side,  about 
one-eighth  of  an  inch  from  the  lower  edge,  near  the  outline  of  the  wing. 
Plate  LXXXIII,  No.  2,  is  a  drawing  of  the  other  hollow  carving.  It 
represents  a  quadruped  carrying  in  its  mouth  a  roseate  spoonbill 


Mound  No.  25  113 

(compare  the  head  of  the  bird  with  that  in  Plate  LXXVIII,  No.  2  and 
Fig.  63).  Two  incised  ovals  are  cut  in  the  back  of  the  animal,  and 
another  is  present  upon  the  upper  side  of  the  tail.  These  oval  figures 
are  probably  analogous  to  similar  elliptical  forms  common  upon  the 
backs  and  above  the  head  of  animals  which  appear  in  the  incised  carv- 
ings of  the  Ohio  Mound  Builders.  The  head  and  beak  of  the  bird,  its 
somewhat  conventionalized  wing,  and  a  part  of  the  tail  appear  on  the 
side  shown  in  this  drawing.  Two  perforations  extend  through  the  back 
of  the  animal  and  open  into  the  interior  cavity  of  the  effigy.  The 
relative  size  of  the  cavity  is  shown  by  the  oval  line  in  Plate  LXXXIII, 
No.  3.  The  bird  wings  are  turned  back  between  the  animal's  legs.  The 
neck  of  the  bird  extends  along  the  quadruped's  head  and  neck,  and 
disappears  beneath  its  body.  The  continuous  outline  of  the  spoonbill  is 
indicated  by  wide  incised  lines  upon  the  under  side  of  the  carving  and 
within  the  cavity.  These  lines  are  represented  by  heavy  lines,  and  the 
broken  lines  show  that  portion  of  the  bird  appearing  upon  the  sides  of 
the  carving." 

Skeletons  283  and  284.  Nothing  was  found  with  either  of  these. 
They  lay  in  the  edge  of  Cut  No.  5,  with  heads  to  the  north.  As  in  the 
case  of  nearly  all  skeletons  in  the  moimd,  they  were  utterly  decayed. 

The  first  altar  found  was  in  Section  3,  about  28  feet  north  of  the 
copper  find  and  upon  the  base  line  of  the  mound.  It  was  evident  that 
a  quantity  of  wood  had  first  been  placed  in  the  basin  of  the  altar,  and 
that  the  earth  had  been  heaped  over  it  and  the  objects,  while  it  was  still 
burning.  Thus,  although  the  contents  of  the  altar  were  badly  charred 
and  burned,  not  all  the  objects  had  been  destroyed.  The  objects  had 
been  heaped  in  the  cavity  of  the  altar  without  any  regularity  of  position, 
and  included  mica  ornaments,  spool-shaped  copper  ornaments,  copper 
balls,  many  other  copper  objects,  large  beads,  bear's  and  panther's 
teeth,  carved  bones,  several  effigies  carved  out  of  stone,  stone  tablets, 
slate  ornaments,  beautiful  stone  and  terracotta  rings,  quartz  crystals 
worked  in  various  forms,  flint  knives,  and  cloth.  The  heat  of  the  fire 
had  evidently  been  intense,  for  much  of  the  copper  was  melted  and  run 
together. 

Section  4.  Skeleton  262  was  found  only  18  inches  below  the  surface 
in  this  section.  A  large  stone  celt  lay  near  the  neck.  It  is  highly 
probable  that  it  was  an  intrusive  burial.  Skeleton  263,  that  of  a  child, 
was  found  near  the  surface  on  the  north  side. 

Skeleton  276  was  found  on  the  base  line.  There  were  no  objects 
with  it.  The  floor  of  this  section  presented  the  same  appearance  as  that 
of  Sections  2  and  3,  being  burned  hard,  but  no  platforms  surrounded  by 


ii4  Hopewell  Mound  Group 

trenches  were  found.  Ash-pits  about  10  by  12  inches  and  post-holes 
full  of  decayed  wood  were  numerous. 

Section  5.  Skeleton  285  lay  in  the  bottom  of  Section  5,  head  to  the 
north.  There  were  no  objects  with  it.  Skeleton  286  lay  upon  the  east 
side  of  Section  5,  somewhat  under  the  bank  of  Section  3.  There  were 
between  two  and  three  hundred  beads  around  the  neck,  and  ocean 
shells  at  the  head. 

Section  6.  This  section  lay  between  Sections  2  and  3,  and  promised 
to  be  very  rich.    The  following  skeletons  were  found  on  the  base  line: 

No.  288.    West  side  of  section.    Badly  decayed.    No  objects. 

Nos.  289  and  290.  Centre  of  the  section.  Both  lay  with  the  head 
toward  the  east.  Bowlders  to  a  thickness  of  14  or  15  inches  had  been 
laid  over  the  bodies.  At  the  heads,  bowlders  the  size  of  a  man's  fist 
had  been  arranged  in  arch,  sheltering  the  skulls,  which  were  fairly  well 
preserved.  A  peculiar  substance  similar  to  resin  or  gum  was  found 
upon  the  shoulder  blades  of  one  skeleton.  The  earth  below  the  skele- 
tons was  burned  hard  and  covered  with  a  thin  layer  of  charcoal.  Several 
hundred  beads  were  found  around  the  neck  of  No.  289. 

Second  Altar.  This  altar  was  found  in  Section  6,  and  its  removal 
completed  the  work  at  Hopewell.  The  objects  found  in  it  had  been 
heaped  above  the  fire,  as  in  the  altar  previously  described.  It  was 
somewhat  larger  than  the  latter,  and  included  more  objects.  Most  of 
the  finds  were  of  the  same  character,  but  in  addition  it  contained 
obsidian  and  some  fine  pipes. 

Most  of  the  skeletons  were  found  on  the  north  side  of  Sections  2 
and  3,  only  8  to  12  feet  from  the  surface  and  under  layers  of  gravel  or 
earth.  The  centre  of  the  mound  contained  gravel  and  clay  strata 
which,  for  a  certain  distance,  did  not  conform  to  the  slope  of  the  struc- 
ture. The  proportion  of  the  different  materials  in  the  mound  was 
estimated  to  be  as  follows:  Clay  45%,  loam  20%,  gravel  13%,  sand 
5,%  white  clay  5%,  burnt  earth  5%,  charcoal  1%,  stones  1%. 

Our  first  inspection  of  Mound  25  led  us  to  believe  that  it  represented 
the  human  trunk;  but  we  later  concluded  that  its  form  was  due  to 
additions,  which  had  been  made  to  the  mound  at  various  times,  and 
that  it  was  not  intended  for  an  effigy. 

It  seems  to  me  that  Mound  25  was  the  result  of  gradual  develop- 
ment. It  is  probable  that  a  number  of  interments  were  first  made,  the 
small  wooden  pens  or  dome-shaped  structures  erected,  and  mounds 
built  over  these.  The  first  completed  structure  was  approximately 
150  feet  long,  80  feet  wide,  and  about  14  feet  high.    Later  it  was  made 


Mound  No.  25  115 

into  an  elevated  platform,  as  the  earth  layers  indicate  that  the  top  was 
flat  for  a  considerable  distance. 

The  deposits  of  sheet  copper,  and  also  the  deposits  of  axes  and  celts, 
were  apparently  made  after  the  original  smaller  mounds  were  com- 
pleted. Indeed,  they  were  placed  on  the  hard  burnt  floor  subsequent 
to  some  of  the  burials.  It  seems  also  that  No.  248  and  a  number  of 
other  skeletons  north  of  the  centre  of  the  mound  were  placed  there, 
after  these  first  interments  had  been  made.  This  is  based  on  the  fact 
that  many  of  the  layers  seemed  disturbed  or  broken,  as  though  the 
Indians  had  dug  down  four  or  five  feet  through  the  original  slope  of 
the  first  mounds  on  the  north  side.  Having  made  these  interments, 
they  heaped  dirt  above  to  a  height  of  from  8  to  14  feet.  How  long  a 
period  elapsed  between  these  various  interments  it  is  impossible  to  state, 
but  the  evidence  indicates  that  the  Hopewell  group  was  occupied  for 
a  considerable  length  of  time.  The  number  of  mound  interments  and 
objects  is  of  such  character  as  to  indicate  that  the  place  was  occupied 
for  at  least  a  hundred  years.  I  do  not  think  that  the  peculiar  character 
of  Mound  25  can  be  explained  on  the  theory  that  all  the  interments  and 
the  amount  of  labor  necessary  to  erect  such  a  structure  were  due  to 
concentrated  effort  on  the  part  of  the  villagers  during  a  few  years  of 
occupation. 


II.     STUDIES  OF  THE  OBJECTS  FOUND  IN  THE 
HOPEWELL  MOUNDS 

A  study  of  the  various  objects  found  in  the  mounds  of  the  Hopewell 
group  will  be  presented  under  fourteen  subdivisions.  It  has  not  been 
possible  to  always  adhere  strictly  to  the  material  under  discussion  in  a 
given  section,  as,  for  example,  when  speaking  of  copper,  it  is  some- 
times necessary  to  refer  to  bone  and  shell  also. 

Metal:  Copper  Objects. — In  the  course  of  a  general  review  of  the 
bulk  of  the  material  found  during  these  explorations,  the  observer  is  at 
once  struck  by  the  profusion  of  copper  objects.  While  no  one  has  as 
yet  counted  the  multitudinous  objects  in  the  Field  Museum  collection, 
it  is  estimated  that  there  are  about  two  thousand  one  hundred  copper 
ear-ornaments  or  busks  in  storage.  Taking  into  consideration  the  many 
perfect  objects  on  exhibition,  the  masses  of  copper  fused  together,  and 
the  fragments,  it  seems  probable  that  there  were  in  the  neighborhood 
of  five  thousand  copper  objects  in  the  twenty-eight  mounds  of  the 
Hopewell  group.  This,  further,  does  not  take  into  account  the  copper 
removed  by  Squier  and  Davis.  The  objects  include  not  only  those 
common  in  Ohio  Valley  mounds,  such  as  celts,  small  plates,  and  ear- 
ornaments,  but  there  are  also  copper  plates,  axes  of  unusual  size,  and 
many  designs  cleverly  wrought  from  sheet  copper.  Nothing  like  these 
geometric  figures  of  thin  copper  had  been  previously  found  in  Ohio, 
except  a  few  specimens  from  the  Turner  group,  near  Cincinnati.  The 
whole  series  included  such  abnormal  forms,  so  different  from  those 
found  in  other  mound  explorations,  that  some  of  our  most  eminent 
archaeologists  stated  that  it  was  impossible  for  Indians  working  with 
stone  tools  to  have  produced  such  delicate  and  finished  work.  It  was 
not  until  the  publication  of  a  detailed  report  upon  analysis  of  mound 
copper  by  Clarence  B.  Moore,1  that  it  was  established  beyond  doubt 
that  the  Hopewell  copper  was  prehistoric.  Moore  has  set  forth  the 
fact  that  Europeans  traded  copper  ornaments  to  the  Indians,  but  that 
these  were  usually  made  of  an  alloy,  and  that  the  metal  was  not  nearly 
as  pure  as  that  obtained  by  the  Indians  from  the  drift  or  mines  in 
Wisconsin  and  Michigan.  Additional  evidence  of  the  aboriginal  origin 
of  these  objects  is  furnished  by  the  presence  of  many  fragments  and 

1  American  Anthropologist,  Vol.  V,  1903,  p.  27. 
Il6 


Copper  Objects 


117 


partly  worked  nuggets  of  copper,  which  certainly  would  not  have  been 
given  to  the  Indians  by  traders  or  travellers.  To  present  a  technical 
study  of  this  wealth  of  copper  would  require  a  special  monograph,  but 
it  is  not  my  purpose  to  consider  in  detail  everything  found  in  the  mounds. 

The  axes  and  adzes  found  range  in  size  from  very  small  examples, 
4  or  5  cm  long  and  3  cm  wide  to  the  very  large  example  shown  in  Plate 
LIII,  which  weighs  38^2  pounds.  A  distinction  must  be  drawn  between 
the  adzes,  which  are  concave  on  one 
side  and  convex  on  the  other,  with 
flaring  edges   (Plate   LI),  and  the 
axes,    whose    edges    do    not    flare 
(Plate  LII). 

It  is  well  to  compare  these  copper 
implements  with  the  stone  imple- 
ments of  the  ungrooved  axe  class. 
The  same  types  have  been  found, 
in  stone,  in  village  sites  and  graves 
in  Ohio,  Kentucky,  and  Tennessee. 
Most  of  the  better  stone  axes  and 
adzes  have  one  side  flat  with  the 
other  convex  and  an  edge  which 
is  often  sharply  beveled  or  curved. 
The  makers  of  the  copper  imple- 
ments probably  patterned  the  adzes 
after  the  specialized  stone  adze- 
blades,  and  the  ordinary  axes  after 
the  stone  ungrooved  axe  or  celt. 
Fig.  13a,  drawn  by  C.C.Willoughby, 
shows  the  outlines  of  copper  adzes 
and  axes  found  in  the  Hopewell 
mounds.  The  copper  adzes  and  axes 
seem  to  be  particularly  corroded. 
Traces  of  the  cloth  were  still  visible 
on  some  specimens,  and  of  what  was 

apparently  fur  on  others.  Willoughby  thinks  that  most  of  the  hatchets, 
adzes,  and  celts  had  not  been  used.  The  suggestion  naturally  follows 
that  these  objects,  notwithstanding  their  form,  were  treasured  valu- 
ables rather  than  tools  for  every-day  use.  In  Fig.  136  Willoughby  has 
drawn  three  specimens  found  with  skeleton  176.  The  upper  ends  of 
the  two  at  the  left  are  battered,  and  all  show  laminations,  indicating 
that  at  least  some  of  these  objects  were  used  as  tools.     It  is  rather 


Fig.   13a. 

Outline  of  Copper 

Hatchets  and  Adzes. 


n8 


Hopewell  Mound  Group 


curious  that  the  skeleton  with  which  these  were  found  is  that  of  a  child. 
The  larger  copper  tool  shown  in  Plate  LI  1 1  is  one  of  the  most  inter- 
esting of  the  Hopewell  finds.  The  circumstances  attending  its  dis- 
covery have  been  mentioned  above.  On  it  lay  portions  of  textiles  and 
traces  of  wood  or  bark.  It  seems  impossible  that  such  an  object  could 
have  been  put  to  any  use.  There  seems  to  be  no  special  differences 
between  the  copper  tools  found  with  skeletons  and  those  from  the  copper 


Fig.  13b. 
Three   Copper  Hatchets  from   Skeleton    176. 


deposits.  As  a  general  rule,  the  former  show  more  signs  of  use.  Some 
of  the  copper  is  very  much  oxidized  or  disintegrated.  This  is  illustrated 
in  Plate  LIV,  No.  i,  which  shows  one  of  the  copper  hatchets  nearly 
full  size.  The  copper  accompanying  skeletons  Nos.  260  and  261  was 
more  disintegrated  than  that  from  other  burials,  although  it  is  difficult 
to  determine  the  cause  thereof.  A  few  small,  pointed  copper  tools 
were  found,  but  scarcely  enough  to  constitute  credit  by  themselves 
Fig.  14  shows  an  awl  or  pointed  tool  of  copper   17.5  cm  long,  found 


Fig.   14. 
Copper  Awl  or  Pointed  Tool  from  Mound 


in  Mound  25.  There  was  also  a  somewhat  heavier  pointed  tool,  which 
was  almost  pick-shaped.  Someone  has  cleaned  and  polished  half  of  it, 
removing  the  oxidization.  Students  of  prehistoric  copper  artifacts  have 
been  unable  to  understand  why  the  Hopewell  people  did  not  make  use 


Copper  Objects  119 

of  the  awl  and  needle  forms  common  in  Wisconsin  and  Michigan,  when 
they  possessed  so  many  axes,  plates,  and  designs  in  sheet  copper.  It 
has  been  the  experience  of  both  C.  B.  Moore  and  Professor  Mills  that 
the  mound  copper  of  the  Ohio  Valley  and  the  South  is  confined  exclu- 
sively to  ornaments,  plates,  and  axes.  The  utility  tools,  such  as  awls, 
needles,  and  gouges,  do  not  seem  to  have  passed  beyond  the  confines 
of  Michigan  and  Wisconsin. 

Next  to  axes  and  adzes,  plates  were  the  most  numerous  of  the  larger 
pieces.  At  least  fifty  more  or  less  perfect  examples  were  obtained,  and 
counting  the  many  fragments,  it  seems  probable  that  over  a  hundred 
were  originally  placed  with  the  various  burials  and  deposits.  The 
largest  plate  was  about  24  cm  long  and  14  cm  wide,  while  the  smallest 
observed  was  12  cm  long  and  6.5  cm  wide.  I  should  judge  the  average 
size  to  be  about  15  by  10  cm.  The  plates  were  not  quite  as  thin  as  the 
sheet  copper  designs,  but  varied  considerably  in  thickness,  the  heaviest 
being  about  3  mm  thick  and  the  thinnest  about  1.5  mm. 

One  would  like  very  much  to  know  why  the  heavy  axes  and  adzes 
over  skeletons  260  and  261,  and  the  thick  copper  plates  and  eagle 
effigies,  were  often  badly  oxidized,  while  the  thin  sheet-copper  designs 
of  the  other  deposits  were  (for  the  most  part)  well  preserved.  The 
surfaces  of  numbers  of  the  copper  tools  are  much  pitted,  whereas  many 
of  the  thin  sheets  retain  nearly  their  original  form.  One  would  naturally 
suppose  that  the  frail  geometric  designs  would  disintegrate  more  rapidly. 
Possibly  the  quantity  of  bark  surrounding  them  and  the  absence  of 
contact  with  human  remains  aided  in  their  preservation.  Willoughby 
suggests  that  the  thin  sheets  were  of  purer  copper  and  more  highly 
finished,  which  made  them  less  liable  to  decay. 

A  plate  of  typical  form,  found  with  one  of  the  skeletons,  is  shown 
in  Plate  LV,  No.  1.  Willoughby  has  drawn  outlines  of  some  of  the 
plates  illustrating  variations  in  sizes  (Fig.  15).  The  central  plate  e  was 
found  with  skeleton  199.  Plate  LV,  No.  2,  shows  a  more  specialized 
form  of  plate  found  in  the  sheet-copper  deposits.  It  is  a  rather  narrow 
rectangle,  with  three  small  holes  drilled  at  either  end.  While  classed 
with  the  plates,  it  is  somewhat  different  and  much  thinner  and,  as 
stated,  lay  with  the  deposit  of  copper  designs.  On  many  of  the  plates 
there  were  traces  of  cloth,  and  on  others  slight  indications  of  fur  or  hair, 
as  though  they  had  been  wrapped  in  skins.  Most  of  the  plates  were 
perforated,  and  appeared  to  have  been  worn  on  the  person.  On  one 
side  of  the  smallest  copper  plate  found,  which  was  with  skeleton  199, 
there  were  remains  of  a  fringe  made  of  twisted  fibre  of  some  kind. 
Sinews,  running  from  one  hole  to  another,  showed  the  method  of  attach- 


120 


Hopewell  Mound  Group 


ing  this  plate  to  the  cloth.  When  found  with  skeletons,  the  plates  were 
usually  on  the  breast  or  abdomen.  It  is  very  easy  to  distinguish  the 
copper  plates  from  the  designs  and  other  material.  There  is,  however, 
such  a  quantity  of  copper  worked  in  unusual  form  that  much  of  the 
collection  is  difficult  to  classify. 

Small  copper  beads  were  found  with  several  skeletons,  also  a  few 
large  beads.  A  few  objects,  probably  very  large  beads,  were  found  in 
the  altars,  although,  as  they  had  lain  directly  in  the  hottest  part  of  the 
fire,  it  was  impossible  to  determine  whether  they  had  been  beads  or 


Fig.   15. 
Outlines  of  Plates. 


small  cylinders.  They  were  3-4  cm  long  and  2-3  cm  in  diameter.  I 
believe  that  they  were  made  by  rolling  small  copper  sheets,  2-3  mm  in 
thickness,  together,  and  overlapping  and  hammering  down  the  edges. 
Many  buttons  and  cones  were  found  in  the  altars  and  with  certain 
skeletons.  They  were  shaped  like  European  buttons,  and  were  12-20 
mm  in  diameter  and  5-10  mm  thick.  The  largest  examples,  which 
have  been  classed  as  cones,  were  sometimes  as  much  as  5  cm  in  diameter, 
and  2-3  cm  high.  Some  of  these  objects  were  of  copper ;  others,  of  wood 
or  clay,  were  covered  with  silver  or  copper.  In  these  the  metal  plating 
was  thin,  and  appeared  to  have  simply  been  hammered  in  place  upon 
the  non-metallic  base.  A  number  of  these  buttons  and  cones  are  shown 
in  Fig.  16.  The  two  largest  (a  and  b)  are  about  5  cm  in  diameter  and 
are  covered  with  silver;  c  and  d  show  two  of  the  small  buttons  with 
the  convex  side  up;  and  e  and/,  the  reverse  of  the  same  specimens. 


Copper  Objects 


121 


In  e  a  small  piece  of  carbonized  twine  still  protrudes  from  the  upper 
perforation.  About  two  hundred  of  these  buttons  and  cones  were  found, 
one  or  two  of  which  were  of  metoric  iron.  Plate  LVI,  Nos.  1-6,  shows 
two  disks  of  thin  copper,  two  quadrangular,  and  two  spoon-shaped, 
copper  objects.  There  were  originally  handles  to  the  two  spoon-like 
specimens,  but  these  have  been  broken  off.  The  copper  disks,  if  found 
under  other  conditions,  would  probably  be  considered  European,  as 
they  are  of  the  same  form  as  a  modern  washer.  The  two  quadrangular 
perforated  objects  have  two  minute  perforations  in  the  smaller  end,  as 
if  intended  for  suspension. 


Fig.  i  6. 
Buttons  of  Clay  and  Wood  Covered  with  Copper. 


Spool-shaped  ear-ornaments  of  copper  are  common  in  the  Ohio 
mounds,  and  I  have  estimated  that  there  must  have  been  originally 
four  thousand  of  these  objects  deposited  in  the  Hopewell  group.  The 
greater  number  of  these  were  of  the  simple  type  shown  in  Plate  LVI, 
Nos.  7-10.  Squier  and  Davis  do  not  report  the  position  of  the  copper 
spools  found  by  them  in  relation  to  skeletons.  Putnam  was  the  first 
to  identify  them  as  ear-ornaments,  as  he  found  many  of  them  in  pairs, 
one  on  either  side  of  the  skull.  They  have  also  been  found  upon  the 
hands  or  wrists.  The  diameter  of  these  ornaments  varies  from  about 
3  to  6  cm  with  4  cm  as  an  average.  A  few  specimens  were  covered 
with  silver  or  meteoric  iron,  but  these  were  quite  rare.  One  or  two  of 
this  sort  were  reported  by  Putnam  from  the  Turner  group. 

The  late  Frank  Hamilton  Gushing  experimented  with  reference  to 
the  manufacture  of  these  objects,  but  students  of  archaeology  are 
especially  indebted  to  Willoughby  for  his  additional  and  more  com- 
plete observations.  With  suitable  stones  and  one  or  two  bones  of  firm 
texture,  obtained  on  the  sea-shore,  he  fashioned  an  ear-ornament  equal 
to  those  produced  by  the  Hopewell  people.  The  copper  used  was  a  free 
nugget,  which  he  secured  from  a  copper  mine.  He  took  as  a  pattern  one 


122  Hopewell  Mound  Group 

of  the  finest  ornaments  from  the  Hopewell  mounds.  In  fact  he  selected 
one  on  which  there  was  a  symbolic  design.  In  the  paper  detailing  at 
length  his  experiment  he  records  that,  as  the  nugget  was  hammered, 
the  outer  edge  of  the  sheet  became  hard  and  brittle,  and  showed  a 
liability  to  crack  and  break.  The  cracks  usually  extended  toward  the 
centre.  He  therefore  placed  the  copper  on  a  fire  made  of  drift  wood 
and,  after  heating  the  metal,  allowed  it  to  slightly  cool,  then  continued 
the  hammering.  By  repeating  this  process  he  was  able  to  reduce  the 
copper  to  proper  thinness.  After  the  sheet  of  copper  had  been  prepared, 
he  pointed  a  stone  and  drew  a  circle  of  the  required  diameter.  With 
the  aid  of  his  bone  implement  he  made  a  groove  around  this  circle, 
producing  a  corresponding  ridge  on  the  opposite  side.  He  ground  this 
ridge  away  with  a  flat  rubbing-stone,  and  had  a  flat  circular  disk  of 
nearly  uniform  thickness.  Believing  that  the  Indians  had  a  model  of 
either  wood  or  clay  over  which  they  pressed  the  thin  sheet  copper,  he 
constructed  a  form  from  pine-wood  with  the  aid  of  stone  implements 
and  fire.  He  carved  the  circle  with  its  radiating  arms  (which  was  on 
the  original  Hopewell  ornament)  upon  the  form  with  a  stone  knife. 
He  bent  the  metal  over  the  form  and  forced  it  into  the  grooves  with 
his  narrow  bone  tool  and  a  small  water-worn  pebble  which  he  used  as 
a  hand  hammer.  He  found  it  necessary  to  anneal  the  copper,  as  the 
bone  implement  tended  to  harden  or  temper  the  metal.  He  finished 
the  edges  of  the  disks  by  rubbing  them  upon  a  flat  stone,  and  then 
polished  the  object.  He  concluded  that  a  number  of  plates  could  be 
thus  fashioned  over  the  same  mould  or  form.  He  states  that  sheet 
copper  can  be  readily  drilled  with  a  pointed  stone,  provided  the  point 
is  not  too  sharp.  He  made  a  careful  study  of  the  construction  of  these 
ornaments,  and  his  drawings  illustrating  the  various  steps  in  the  manu- 
facture are  reproduced  in  Fig.  17.  He  may  well  be  satisfied  with  the 
results  of  his  labor,  as  the  ear-busk  made  by  him  is  very  much  like  the 
one  in  Plate  LVII,  No.  1,  of  the  Hopewell  collection,  although  it  is,  of 
course,  brighter  and  fresher. 

Thirty  to  thirty-five  copper  anklets,  bracelets,  and  disks  were 
found  with  skeletons  260  and  261  and  in  the  other  copper  deposits  and 
altars.  The  small  washer-shaped  disks  have  been  described  elsewhere. 
The  bracelets  and  anklets  are  made  both  from  solid  copper  and  from 
sheet  copper  rolled.  They  vary  in  thickness.  Two  are  shown  in  Plate 
LVIII, — one  solid,  the  other  of  sheet  copper,  edges  turned  over.  The 
largest  one  is  9.5  cm  in  diameter.  In  the  one  made  of  sheet  copper  it 
will  be  observed  that  there  is  an  opening  extending  entirely  around. 
The  edges  are  made  smooth,  so  the  bracelet  could  be  worn  conveniently. 


Copper  Objects 


123 


Plates  LIX  a  and  B  show  several  more  of  the  ordinary  single  (solid)  wire 
bracelets  and  the  rolled  sheet  ones.  There  is  great  diversity  in  the 
manufacture  of  the  anklets  or  bracelets.  The  thickness  of  the  strip 
varies,  and  in  some  of  the  hollow  ones  a  solid  bracelet  was  found  inside. 


Fie.  17. 
Construction   of    Ear-Ornaments. 


Copper  bracelets  have  been  found  in  man}''  mounds  with  skeletons, 
but  the  disks,  six  of  which  are  shown  in  Plate  LX,  are  most  unusual. 
A  photograph  does  not  bring  them  out  clearly.  They  are  saucer-shaped. 
If  one  took  an  ordinary  saucer  and  cut  out  the  bottom,  leaving  the  rim 
concave  within  and  convex  without,  one  would  have  an  exact  duplica- 
tion of  these  objects.  All  of  them  are  very  nearly  true  circles.  They 
were  found  fitted  one  within  the  other.  It  has  been  suggested  that  the 
form  was  probably  produced  by  placing  a  thin  sheet  of  copper  over  a 
rounded  wooden  object  or  stone  ball,  and  the  copper  was  thus  hammered 
into  shape.  It  would  be  easier  to  cut  out  the  hole  first,  while  the  copper 
was  flat.  They  are  smoothly  finished.  These  objects  are  of  the  same 
form  as  the  large  silver  disks  worn  by  Navajo  Indians  at  the  present 
time  on  their  belts. 

The  majority  of  these  objects  were  found  in  a  single  deposit  about 
25  feet  from  the  first  altar  discovered  and  15  feet  below  the  surface. 
They  were  laid  horizontally,  occupying  a  space  approximately  3  by  2 
feet,  and  were  protected  above  and  below  by  layers  of  bark.  The 
objects  found  in  this  deposit,  118  in  all,  were  the  most  remarkable 
found  in  the  Hopewell  group.  In  fact,  their  counterpart  had  not  pre- 
viously been  reported.     Studies  of  them  made  by  Putnam  and  Wil- 


124  Hopewell  Mound  Group 

loughby  lead  observers  to  believe  that  most  of  them  are  cosmic  symbols. 
They  show  great  variation  in  form,  ranging  from  small  objects  with  an 
elevated  circular  centre  and  expanding  wings  (Plate  LXI,  Nos.  1-4)  to 
the  large  complicated  designs  shown  in  Plate  LXVIII,  No.  4. 

In  Plate  LXI,  Nos.  5-7,  are  shown  three  prong-like  objects,  made  of 
very  thin  copper,  which  were  25  cm  long.  The  base  of  the  most  perfect 
one  shows  a  perforation.  In  Plate  LXI,  Nos.  8-9,  are  illustrated  two 
other  objects  whose  form  suggests  that  of  Nos.  5-7,  although  with 
marked  differences.  The  figures  of  Plates  LXII  and  LXIII  suggest 
the  head  of  a  serpent.  Those  in  Plate  LXIII  are  not  tmlike  the  oval 
and  wing  walls  or  "plumes"  lying  at  the  head  of  the  Serpent  Mound  in 
Adams  County,  Ohio.  Plate  LXIY  illustrates  three  similar  objects, 
much  corroded.  Plate  LXVIII,  No.  4,  is  probably  the  best  and  most 
interesting  of  all  the  stencils.  It  evidently  represents  the  head  of  a 
serpent.  The  two  perforated  disks  a  little  back  from  the  pointed  end 
probably  represent  the  eyes.  The  object  has  been  mended  in  two  places, 
but  the  repairs  do  not  come  out  well  in  the  photograph.  Willoughby 
in  his  article  published  in  the  Holmes  Memorial  Volume,  suggests  the 
placing  of  the  forked  objects  (Plate  LXI,  Nos.  5-7)  above  this  head, 
representing  the  forked  tongue  or  fangs.  In  Plate  LXV,  Nos.  1-2,  are 
shown  two  designs  of  unknown  significance,  cut  from  very  thin  metal 
and  beautifully  made.  We  will  assume  that  in  the  design  of  No.  1  the 
maker  first  cut  out  the  three  oval  perforations.  This  left  the  three 
projections,  and  small  circles  were  then  cut  in  the  centre  of  these. 
Thus  the  symbol  "three"  occurs  three  times,  although  I  am  unable  to 
say  whether  this  has  any  significance.  In  the  other  design  there  are 
four  arms,  each  of  which  is  turned  at  the  end,  leaving  a  small  opening. 
Between  these  arms  there  are  four  leaf -like  projections  each  of  which 
is  perforated  with  a  circle.  At  the  base  of  each  of  these  projections 
there  is  a  small  perforation  which  probably  served  for  the  attachment 
of  the  object.   Thus  the  symbol  "four"  occurs  four  times. 

One  of  the  large  stencils  which  seems  to  have  been  divided  into 
four  parts  is  shown  in  Plate  LXV,  No.  3.  The  proportions  of  the 
different  parts  are  nearly  perfect.  All  around  the  margin  of  this  object 
are  small  perforations,  probably  for  attachment.  Plate  LXVI,  Nos. 
1-2,  must  be  classed  as  one  of  the  designs  of  unknown  significance. 
It  seems  probable  that  they  are  the  halves  of  large  double  ornaments. 
In  Plate  LXVII,  Nos.  1-2,  are  shown  two  swastikas.  A  number  of 
these,  large  and  small,  were  found.  In  Plate  LXVI,  Nos.  3-4,  are 
represented  thin,  toothed  strips  of  copper,  very  naturally  called  saws. 
They  are  too  small  and  thin  to  have  been  used  as  tools,  however.  They 


Copper.  Objects  125 

may  have  been  intended  to  portray  lightning.  There  were  a  number  of 
objects  of  the  sort  which  are  shown  in  Plate  LXVII,  Nos.  3-4.  They 
are  diamond-shaped,  containing  four  perforated  ovals.  In  the  top  and 
bottom  ovals  the  perforation  is  round ;  in  those  at  the  sides,  oval.  This 
is  particularly  mentioned,  because  it  affords  evidence  that  the  artistic 
proportions  were  usually  preserved  by  this  people.  This  is  true  of  their 
bone  carvings,  as  well  as  of  their  copper  work.  In  Plate  LXVIII, 
Nos.  1-3,  are  figured  designs  evidently  cut  with  the  aid  of  patterns. 
The  central  cosmic  symbol  is  not  uncommon  in  Mexico  and  Asia,  and 
has  been  variously  interpreted.  Putnam  and  Willoughby1  have 
compared  these  designs  with  the  serpent  designs  found  on  the  Cincinnati 
tablet  and  with  similar  designs  from  the  Turner  and  Hopewell  groups 
They  have  made  a  study  of  these  symbols  and  published  an  abstract  of 
their  observations. 

An  object  which  apparently  represents  the  claws  of  a  bear  is  shown 
in  Plate  LXIX,  No.  1.  Several  specimens  of  this  sort  were  found  with 
the  sheet-copper  deposit.  Apparently  they  were  made  by  hammering 
sheet  copper  over  narrow  convex  wooden  forms.  On  two  of  them  the 
lamination  is  visibile.  In  one  specimen,  a  claw  which  had  been  broken 
off  is  mended  with  a  piece  of  copper  fastened  underneath  and  attached 
with  small  rivets.  It  is  possible  that  these  objects  were  used  as  combs. 
Combs  of  bone  have  been  found  in  Iroquois  sites  and  at  Madisonville, 
but  I  am  unable  to  state  whether  any  of  these  were  of  this  form.  In 
Plate  LXIX,  No.  2,  is  shown  a  fish  effigy,  four  of  which  were  found  in 
the  deposit.  These  were  not  all  of  the  same  size,  and  there  are  variations 
in  the  length  of  the  body  and  the  shape  of  the  mouth  and  fins.  The 
gills,  and  the  juncture  of  the  fins  with  the  body,  are  shown  by  curved 
lines.  There  are,  two  small  perforations  above  and  below  the  eye,  and 
another  pair  at  the  base  of  the  dorsal  fin.  The  tubercals  at  the  mouth 
are  shown  by  repousse  work.  These  effigies  appear  to  represent  the 
large  sucker,  locally  known  as  the  "red  horse,"  which  is  common  in  the 
Scioto  River.  I  do  not  know  why  this  fish  should  have  been  selected, 
as  one  would  think  the  Indians  would  have  preferred  the  bass,  catfish, 
or  even  the  perch,  for  these  designs.  It  is  possible  that  the  effigies  repre- 
sent the  buffalo  fish  instead  of  the  "red  horse"  or  common  sucker. 

Two  slender  slightly  hollowed  copper  objects  are  shown  in  Plate 
LXX,  Nos.  1-2.  They  have  two  small  perforations  at  the  wide  concave 
end.  But  for  these  perforations  they  might  be  considered  utensils  of 
some  sort;  but  as  it  is,  they  must  be  placed  in  the  unknown  class. 

Symbolism  in  Ancient  American  Art,  Proceedings  of  the  American  Association 
for  the  Advancement  of  Science,  Vol.  XLIV,  1896. 


126 


Hopewell  Mound  Group 


Plate  LXX,  No.  5,  is  almost  hatchet-like  in  form.  At  first  it  suggests 
the  spatulate  forms  in  slate  and  granite  found  in  Wisconsin  and  Tennes- 
see, but  it  clearly  shows  three  small  perforations  which  indicate  that  it 
was  fastened  flat  to  some  surface.  It  seems  to  me,  in  studying  these 
problematical  forms  of  sheet  copper,  that  the  perforations  are  of  primary 
importance.  Nearly  all  of  them  contain  these  minute  holes  for  rivets 
or  pins,  which  would  seem  to  indicate  that  they  were  either  fastened  to 
wooden  bases  or  upon  garments.     In  No.  5  we  have  a- broken  object  of 

the  same  form  as  Fig.  18.  No.  3  on 
Plate  LXX  is  a  small  copper  oval 
with  two  perforations.  No.  4  on 
the  same  Plate  is  an  imitation 
bear's  tooth  in  copper. 

A  number  of  copper  head-dresses 
were  found,  all, but  two  of  which 
were  in  fragmentary  condition.  The 
antlers  (described  above)  found  at 
the  head  of  skeleton  248  are  shown 
in  Plate  XLIX.  It  is  well  in 
this  connection  to  reproduce  some 
designs  from  bone  and  stone,  as 
well  as  copper.  Fig.  196  is  taken 
from  the  Cincinnati  tablet,  a  from  a 
sheet-copper  design  of  the  Hopewell 
group.  These  two  designs,  found 
about  go  miles  apart  in  mounds  sur- 
rounded by  earthworks,  suggest  the 
earthwork  symbol.  In  some  Hope- 
well designs  we  have  the  circle  or 
symbolic  eye  in  the  centre  sur- 
rounded by  the  square  earthwork. 
Willoughby  says  of  this,  "The  indentations  or  spaces  in  the  human  ser- 
pent head  of  the  Cincinnati  tablet  are  represented  in  the  copper  design 
by  the  seven  notches  above  and  below,  as  shown  in  the  illustration." 

Figs.  20  and  2 1  show  how  the  copper  head-dress  was  worn.  In  the 
former  Willoughby 's  drawing  taken  from  one  of  the  bone  objects  found 
with  a  skeleton  in  Mound  25  is  reproduced.  In  the  latter  he  has  taken 
the  design  apart  in  order  that  it  may  be  conveniently  studied.  Plate 
LXXI  shows  a  head-dress,  or  rather  a  curved  cap  or  helmet  of  copper 
which  was  found  at  the  head  of  skeleton  243.  It  is  fragmentary,  but 
was  probably  16  cm  long  and  10.5  cm  wide.    It  has  short  horns,  and 


Fig.   18. 

Problematical  Form  in 

Sheet  Copper. 


Copper  Objects 


127 


may  represent  the  head  of  the  deer  after  the  horns  have  been  shed. 
The  projections  are  not  unlike  certain  stone  objects  which  have  been 
found  in  the  Ohio  Valley.1  With  reference  to  this  specimen,  Willoughby 
states,  "The  copper  portion  of  this  head-dress  is  made  in  one  piece. 
The  copper  projections  surrounding  the  wooden  cores  have  crumbled 
off  at  about  one  half  their  height.  The  broken  tops  of  the  copper  at 
that  place  show  it  to  have  been  made  of  thin  pieces  of  metal  hammered 
together.  The  head-dress  is  so  corroded  that  it  is  impossible  to  work 
out  the  process  with  exactitude.    No  mark  of  junction  with  the  main 


a 


Fig.  19b. 
Design  from  the  Cincinnati  Tablet. 


Fig.   19a. 

Design  from  a  Sheet  Copper 

of  the  Hopewell  Group. 


plate  shows  on  account  of  corrosion.  The  wooden  cores  have  been 
almost  perfectly  preserved  by  the  salts  of  copper.  They  were  very 
carefully  made,  and  probably  served  as  forms  over  which  to  mould 
the  copper.  Judging  from  the  preservation  of  their  tops,  it  is  quite 
evident  that  the  copper  still  covered  them  when  the  mound  was  opened, 
and  crumbled  when  the  earth  was  removed.  The  plate  is  nearly  straight 
across  the  forehead  and  round  at  the  base." 

Several  sheet-copper  effigies,  apparently  representing  eagles,  were 
found.  One  of  these  is  shown  in  Plate  LXIX,  No.  3.  They  range  from 
26  to  35  cm  in  length,  being  about  5  mm  thick  and  somewhat  thicker 
than  the  sheet-copper  designs.  Most  of  the  specimens  were  fragmen- 
tary, but  one  or  two  have  been  restored.   In  some  cases  the  entire  body 


•Cf.  Stone  Ornaments  in  Use  among  the  American  Indians,  pp.  104,  106,  390. 


128 


Hopewell  Mound  Group 


of  the  bird  does  not  seem  to  have  been  shown.  The  head  is  exaggerated, 
the  wings  are  indicated  above  the  back  rather  than  at  the  sides,  and  the 
tail  is  spread.   These  effigies  may  have  been  carried  on  a  staff  or  placed 

on  the  corners  of  the  ceremonial 
lodge,  as  were  the  eagle  effigies  which 
Tonty  saw  on  the  corners  of  build- 
ings in  the  lower  Mississippi  Valley. 
Two  wooden  bear's  teeth  plated  with 
copper  were  found  with  skeleton 
177.  They  had  apparently  been 
worn  as  ear-pendants.  They  were 
badly  broken,  but  the  wood  seemed 
to  have  been  maple.  The  plating 
was  neatly  done,  and  the  seams 
where  the  sides  joined  were  care- 
fully rubbed  down,  and  the  whole 
surface  made  smooth  and  even. 
There  were  several  copper  cylinders, 
one  of  which  is  shown  in  Fig.  22. 
These  originally  covered  bone  tubes. 
They  were  badly  decayed,  and  all 
but  the  one  shown  were  in  frag- 
ments. Usually  they  appear  to  be  a  union  of  three  cylinders.  Similar 
copper  cylinders  have  been  found  by  other  explorers  in  the  mounds. 

Plates  LXXII— LXXIII  show 
fragments  of  pure  copper,  hammered 
and  unhammered,  and  also  copper 
fused  by  the  heat  of  the  altars.  Fully 
thirty  copper  nuggets  of  all  sizes  were 
found,  these  having  undoubtedly 
been  brought  from  the  Lake  Superior 
region.  Most  of  them  were  found 
in  altars,  but  a  few  were  with  the 
deposit  covering  skeletons  260  and 
261 .  Before  describing  these  objects, 
it  is  well  to  offer  some  suggestions 
as  to  the  source  of  the  material. 
Meteoric  iron  was  found  by  Putnam 

in  the  mounds  of  the  Turner  and  Liberty  groups,  and  a  few  specimens 
have  also  been  discovered  by  Mills.  I  found  a  small  ear-ornament  of 
this  material  in  the  Porter  Mound  in  Frankfort,  Ohio,  and  it  is  probable 


Fig.  20. 

Bone  Object  from  a  Skeleton  in  Mound  25, 

Showing  a  Figure  with   Copper   Head-dress 


Fig.  21. 

Same  Object  as  Fig.  20, 

the  Design  being  Taken  Apart. 


Copper  Objects 


129 


that  the  oxidized  iron  objects  mentioned  by  early  writers  upon  Ohio 

archasology  were  of  meteoric  iron.    All  this  would  indicate  that  there 

was  some  considerable  supply  of  this  metal.    Inquiry  seems  to  indicate 

that  few  fragments  of  meteoric  iron  were  discovered  in  southern  Ohio 

in  recent  years.     Indeed,  one  might  venture  the  assertion  that  there 

was  more  meteoric  iron  in  the  Hopewell  group  alone  than  in  all  these 

recent  finds.    This  seems  to  be  more  or  less 

significant.     Either  the  fall  of  meteorites 

was  more  frequent,  or  the  Hopewell  people 

had  access  to  some  good-sized  meteoric  iron 

deposit  the  location  of  which  is  at  present 

unknown.     Meteoric  iron  is  malleable,  but 

not  so  easily  worked  as  copper.    The  natives 

must  have  reduced  it  to  the  desired  form 

by  hammering  and  grinding.     There  are  in 

the    Hopewell    collection    thirty    or    forty 

fragments   of   meteors   and  iron  artifacts. 

These  include  fragments  of  plates,  hatchets, 

cones,  beads,  and  small  chisel-like  objects 

about  10  cm  in  length.    While  searching  the 

ashes  and  debris  from  Altar  1,  Willoughby 

found  a  shell  bead  in   the  perforation  of 

which  was  a  slender  meteoric   iron   drill, 

broken,  but  identifiable.     Nearly  a  hundred 

iron  beads  were  found  in  the  two  altars, 

but  most  of  them  were  damaged,   and   it 

was  impossible  to  count  accurately. 

Fig.  23  shows  Willoughby 's  drawings  of  four  of  the  meteoric  iron 
objects.  Three  of  these  are  evidently  cutting  tools  inserted  in  stag- 
horn  handles;  a  indicates  that  the  chisel-like  blade  was  curved,  but  it 
is  badly  corroded.  In  b  the  handle  is  better  preserved,  the  inner  end  of 
the  shank  being  rounded.  The  back  is  nearly  flat.  In  c  the  iron  blade 
is  well  preserved,  and  the  edge  is  still  sharp  enough  to  cut  soft  wood. 
The  upper  part  of  the  handle  has  been  almost  entirely  burned  away. 
Plate  LXXIV  shows  five  fragments  of  meteoric  iron,  which  do  not  seem 
to  have  been  worked. 

Lumps  of  galena  were  found  in  a  number  of  the  mounds,  and  a  few 
pieces  were  picked  up  on  the  surface  in  the  group.  Little  or  no  surface 
galena  is  found  in  the  State  of  Ohio,  and  geologists  have  stated  that  it 
probably  came  from  farther  west,  possibly  Illinois  or  Missouri.  The 
Indians  seem  to  have  regarded  it  as  valuable  and,  placed  large  lumps 


Fig.  2z. 
Copper  Cylinder. 


130 


Hopewell  Mound  Group 


in  the  mounds,  without  attempting  to  either  work  it  or  melt  it  into  lead. 
Chipped  Stone;   Objects  of  Quartz,  Crystal,  and  Obsidian. — 
Numbers  of  small  unworked  quartz  crystals,  which  were  practically- 
perfect,  were  found  in  the  altars,  but  the  objects  made  of  this  material 


Fig.  23. 
Meteoric  Iron  Adze  Blades  in  Antler  Handles  from  Altar  1. 


Fig.  24. 
Cones  of  Quartz  Crystal. 


seem  to  have  suffered  more  from  the  heat  of  the  altar  fires  than  those 
of  any  other  class.  Nearly  a  bushel  of  fragments  were  obtained,  but  it 
is  impossible  to  restore  most  of  the  objects.  There  were  large  numbers 
of  very  fine  knives  and  spear-heads,  some  of  which  were  9-1 1  cm  in 


Ouartz,  Crystal,  and  Obsidian 


131 


length.  As  there  is  considerable  waste  in  the  manufacture  of  an  imple- 
ment, a  crystal  of  large  size  must  have  been  required.  No  quartz  of 
this  size  occurs  in  the  Ohio  Valley,  except  perhaps  in  upper  Tennessee 
or  Cumberland,  where  crystals  may  occur  large  enough  for  the  manu- 
facture of  points  8  or  9  cm  long.  The  Hopewell  people  must  have 
either  known  of  deposits  of  crystal  now  exhausted,  or  have  obtained 
them  by  trade  from  some  Indians,  who  lived  in  mountainous  regions, 
where  large  crystals  occurred.  Fragments  of  slender  drill-like  objects 
were  found,  also  plummets  and  cones.  One  object  is  about  8  cm  long 
and  1  cm  in  diameter.  The  ends  have  been  polished,  and  there  is  a 
groove  around  one  end  similar  to  the  groove  at  the  head  of  a  plummet. 
Another  slender  crystal  has  been  worked  into  plummet  form  and  drilled 
from  opposite  sides,  the 
perforation  being  3  mm  in 
diameter  at  the  openings 
and  *  2  mm  wide  in  the 
centre.  In  regard  to  the 
cones,  shown  in  Fig.  24, 
Willoughby  says,  "These 
two  cones,  taken  from 
Altar  1,  were  cut  from 
transparent  quartz.  They 
had  been  cracked  into  many 
fragments,  but  these  were 
matched,  and  the  outlines 
of  both  specimens  are  now 
perfect.  Some  of  the  cracks 
of  the  large  cone  are  stained 
with  green  carbonate  of  copper,  but  the  small  one  shows  little  staining. 
From  the  same  altar  was  taken  another  quartz  crystal,  practically 
perfect  (Fig.  25).  It  appears  to  have  been  originally  a  core  from  which 
quartz  knives  were  thrown  off  by  pressure.  It  has  been  partially  ground 
down,  and  evidently  was  to  be  worked  into  a  form  similar  to  the  others 
described.  From  Altar  1  was  taken  also  a  portion  of  a  large  crystal  of 
brown  or  black  tourmaline."  It  seems  to  me  that  the  delicate  work  in 
quartz  adds  emphasis  to  the  high  character  of  Hopewell  art.  Crystal 
is  much  more  difficult  to  work  than  either  quartzite  or  hematite, 
although  all  these  are  hard  and  refractory  materials. 

An  inspection  of  the  obsidian  implements  from  the  Hopewell  group 
now  in  Field  Museum  of  Natural  History  indicates  that  there  are  262 
blades,  knives,  spear-heads,  etc.,  together  with  a  great  number  of  frag- 


Fig.  25. 
Cone  of  Ouartz  Crystal. 


132 


Hopewell  Mound  Group 


ments.  It  seems  probable  that  about  five  hundred  implements  were 
originally  placed  on  the  altar.  After  much  painstaking  work,  C.  L. 
Owen  of  Field  Museum  has  restored  a  number  of  these  knives  and 
blades.  The  largest,  broken  by  the  heat  of  the  altar,  was  originally 
38  cm  long  and  14  cm  wide,  and  they  range  from  this  down  to  small 
objects  5.5  cm  long.  The  average  dimensions  of  the  larger  implements 
are:  Length  25  cm,  width,  8-1 1  cm,  thickness,  0.5-1  cm.  Most  of 
them  are  of  the  forms  shown  in  Plates  LXXV  —  LXXVI,  and  in 
Willoughby's  drawings  (Fig.  26).     The  points  of  several  of  them  are 


Fig.  26. 
Obsidian  Implements  from  Altar  2. 


curiously  curved,  after  the  manner  of  knives.  Almost  all  of  them  belong 
to  three  or  four  patterns,  which  are  distinctively  western,  and  da  not 
compare  with  types  common  in  the  Mississippi  Valley.  In  most  of  them, 
the  notches  or  barbs  are  cut  diagonally.  There  is  a  slight  widening  in 
the  upper  part  of  the  stems.  The  bases  of  the  unbarbed  ones  are  often 
angular,  coming  almost  to  a  point.     In  some  of  the  more  slender  ones, 


Obsidian  133 

the  bases  are  rounded.  Some  are  double  knives,  being  pointed  at  both 
ends.  The  work  is  no  better  than  that  of  our  best  artists  in  flint  craft 
in  Ohio,  Kentucky,  or  Tennessee. 

Putnam  informed  me  that  the  obsidian  came  from  Yellowstone 
Park,  not  from  New  Mexico  or  California.  If  such  was  the  case,  it  must 
have  been  brought  by  canoe  at  least  three  thousand  miles  down  the 
Yellowstone,  thence  down  the  Missouri,  up  the  Ohio,  and  up  the  Scioto 
to  the  Hopewell  group.  Viewed  from  our  present  ease  and  convenience 
of  travel,  this  statement  carries  no  significance  to  the  reader.  In  pre- 
historic times  it  was  necessary  for  the  Indians  to  go  on  foot  or  in  canoes 
to  the  localities  where  obsidian  could  be  obtained,  all  of  which  meant  a 
journey  of  several  months  duration.  They  would  be  compelled  to  pass 
through  regions  occupied  by  hostile  tribes  and  to  delay  their  journey,  in 
order  to  obtain  food.  The  objects  were  not  made  on  the  Hopewell  site, 
for  no  chips  have  been  found  there,  or  anywhere  in  the  Ohio  Valley. 
If  these  objects  were  not  obtained  by  means  of  a  journey  on  the  part  of 
the  Hopewell  people,  they  must  have  come  in  through  trade.  I  do  not 
believe  that  they  were  bartered  from  village  to  village  from  the  Yellow- 
stone to  the  Scioto,  else  we  would  have  found  obsidian  implements  in 
mounds  of  Illinois,  Missouri,  and  elsewhere.  Although  hundreds  of 
tumuli  have  been  explored,  little  obsidian  has  been  found  outside  the 
State  of  Ohio,  although  I  understand  a  little  has  been  found  in  Illinois 
mounds.  Although  great  numbers  of  arrow-points,  drills,  knives,  and 
spear-heads  of  obsidian  are  found  in  the  Northwest,  none  of  the  small 
points  occur  in  the  Hopewell  group.  The  offerings  were  confined  to 
large  and  rare  types,  which  were  for  the  most  part  specialized  forms. 
It  is  rather  curious  that  the  smaller  points  of  carnelian,  agate,  etc.,  were 
not  brought  to  the  Hopewell  site. 

It  is  surprising  that  there  were  so  few  chipped  objects  of  either  Flint 
Ridge  stone  or  Tennessee  chert.  Most  of  the  chipped  material  from 
the  mounds  was  obsidian  and  quartz,  except  the  large  number  of  disks 
from  Mound  2,  which  seem  to  have  come  from  the  quarries  on  Little 
River,  Tennessee.1  It  does  not  seem  possible  that  the  Indians  carried 
the  8,185  disks  overland  from  Tennessee  to  the  Hopewell  group.  More 
likely,  they  brought  them  by  canoes,  which  necessitated  the  following 
journey — down  Little  River  to  the  Cumberland,  thence  to  the  Ohio 
River,  up  the  Ohio  to  the  Scioto,  then  up  to  Paint  Creek  to  the  North 
Fork  of  same,  and  then  to  the  Hopewell  group.  This  is  a  distance  of 
eight  hundred  miles.    All  the  flint  material  made  use  of  by  the  Hopewell 

'These  workings  are  described  in  Bulletin  of  Phillips  Academy,  Vol.  Ill, 
pp.  126-132;  also  in  the  writer's  Stone  Age  of  North  America,  p.  218. 


134 


Hopewell  Mound  Group 


people  could  have  been  secured  from  Flint  Ridge,  distant  less  than  one 
hundred  miles  from  this  place.  The  chalcedony  of  Flint  Ridge  is  superior 
to  the  Tennessee  chert.  Why,  then,  should  the  Hopewell  people  have 
brought  a  large  mass  of  material  so  great  a  distance?  Was  it  because 
they  were  in  closer  touch  with  southern  people  than  with  northern  ?  Or 
were  the  Flint  Ridge  quarries  in  the  territory  of  a  hostile  tribe  ?  These 
questions  may  have  a  bearing  on  the  migration  or  origin  of  the  Hope- 
well people. 


Fig.  2j. 

Two  Sandstone  Tablets  from  Altar  i. 


Ground  and  Polished  Stone. — Forty-eight  objects  made  of  the 
same  fine  grained  sandstone  of  which  the  Cincinnati  tablet  is  composed 
were  found  in  the  group.  Most  of  them  were  in  Altar  No.  i,  but  one 
rattlesnake  tablet  (Fig.  9,  on  p.  88)  was  found  in  Mound  No.  1.  Nine 
of  these  sandstone  objects  may  be  classified  as  tablets,  but  the  others 
are  almost  celt-shaped,  although  they  have  not  been  brought  to  a  cutting 
edge.  The  largest  of  the  tablets  is  15.5  cm  long,  9  cm  wide  and  1.5  cm 
thick.    The  largest  of  the  celt-shaped  objects  is  10  cm  long  and  3  cm 


Ground  and  Polished  Stone 


135 


wide.  A  few  of  the  smaller  specimens  of  this  type  are  sharpened  at  one 
end.  Two  of  the  largest  tablets,  drawn  by  Willoughby,  are  shown  in 
Fig.  27.  None  of  the  rectangular  tablets  are  polished,  and  they  show 
no  traces  of  carving  or  other  decoration.    Fig.  28  shows  several  of  the 


Fig.  28. 
Seven  Sandstone  Tablets  ami   Celt-like  Objects  from  Altar    i. 


celt-shaped  objects.  Those  on  the  left  appear  to  be  of  limestone  instead 
of  sandstone,  and  are  rather  highly  polished.  The  use  to  which  these 
objects  was  put,  is  of  course,  problematical.  In  their  present  state  the 
larger  ones  appear  unfinished,  and  it  is  possible  that  they  would  have 
eventually  been  decorated  or  carved.  A  number  of  plummets,  which 
do  not  differ  from  those  found  in  the  village  sites  of  the  Ohio  Valley, 
were  found  in  Altar  1 .  Squier  and  Davis  also  found  numbers  of  these 
in  their  explorations.  As  a  rule,  these  objects  are  rather  long  and  slender, 
well  polished  and  symmetrical  (Fig.  29). 

The  objects  commonly  known  as  "problematical  forms,"  that  is, 
banner  stones,  boat  stones,  bird  stones,  etc.,  are  almost  absent  in  the 
Hopewell  group.  We  did  find  one  or  two  slate  ornaments  and  gorgets, 
but  none  of  the  pendant  or  crescent  forms  were  found,  and  no  stone 
tubes.  Fig.  33  has  the  general  form  of  the  short  bar-amulets  from  the 
Ohio  Valley,  but  differs  from  them  in  that  it  has  a  groove  across  the 
back  and  notches  on  the  ends.    The  ordinary  bar-amulet  is  also  longer 


136 


Hopewell  Mound  Group 


and  more  slender.  The  material  is  probably  cave  gypsum.  Fig.  31 
shows  a  problematical  form  from  Altar  2.  It  is  7.25  cm  long  and  4.5 
cm  wide,  Math  a  perforation  of  14  mm  in  diameter.  Similar  objects 
occur  in  Kentucky  and  Tennessee,  and  are  occasionally  found  in  Ohio 
and  Indiana,  but  are  usually  from  ancient  village  sites,  not  from  mounds. 
Fig.  32  represents  a  small  bowl-like  affair  that  can  scarcely  be  classed 
as  a  boat  stone.  It  has  been  badly  damaged  by  the  heat  of  the  altar 
fire.  Fig.  34  is  the  nearest  approach  to  a  bird 
stone  from  the  Hopewell  group.  It  is  7  cm 
across  the  base  and  5.5  cm  high.  The  material 
is  mottled  granite.  It  has  the  protruding  cars 
characteristic  of  the  short-winged  bird  stones 
of  northern  Ohio,  western  New  York,  and 
southwest  Wisconsin.  There  are  perforations 
on  either  side  of  the  base  in  the  same  position 
as  on  ordinary  bird  stones.  It  may  possibly 
portray  an  owl.  It  is  interesting  to  note  that, 
so  far  as  I  am  aware,  the  plain  bird  or  saddle 
stone  has  not  been  found  in  the  Ohio  mounds. 
Fig.  30  illustrates  a  highly  polished,  hollow 
object  of  slate  which  was  found  in  Altar  2.  It 
suggests  a  growing  horn.  It  is  clearly  a 
problematical  form,  and  might  be  classed  as  a 
boat  stone  but  for  the  fact  that  the  lower  part 
is  almost  pointed.  A  stone  ornament  shaped 
like  a  bear's  tooth  (Cat.  No.  56551)  is  shown 
in  Fig.  35. 

If  the  builders  of  the  Hopewell  group  made 
use  of  ornamental  problematical  forms  in  shell, 
slate,  and  other  materials,  it  is  to  be  supposed 
that  they  would  have  placed  them  with 
burials  or  in  altars.  C.  B.  Moore  has  found 
them  with  burials  in  Kentucky,  and  Mills 
discovered  them  at  the  Tremper  mound,  which  is  of  Hopewell  culture. 
It  is  curious  therefore  that  they  should  not  have  occurred  at  Hopewell, 
where  the  culture  seems  to  have  reached  its  highest  artistic  develop- 
ment. It  is  not  advisable  to  enter  here  into  a  lengthy  discussion  of 
this  problem,  but  the  subject  seems  to  be  of  considerable  importance, 
as  the  problematical  forms  apparently  represent  a  special  development 
of  art  in  stone. 

Fig.  36  shows  a  curious  effigy,  probably  of  serpentine.    It  has  been 


Fig.  29. 

Hematite    Plummet 

from  Altar  2. 


Polished  Stone 


137 


much  discolored  by  exposure  to  the  altar  fire.  It  is  difficult  to  deter- 
mine the  creature  represented,  but  one  observer  suggests  that  a  tadpole 
is  intended.  The  lower  part,  or  base,  is  hollowed  out  as  in  a'boat  stone. 
There  are  four  perforations  ranging  from  4  to  6  mm  in  diameter.    Half 


Fig.  30. 
Worked  Object  of  Slate  from  Altar  2. 

of  a  pearl  bead  was  found  in  one  of  the  eye  cavities.  Fig.  37  shows  one 
of  the  most  carefully  executed  carvings  from  the  Hopewell  mound.  It 
is  made  from  dark  green  serpentine,  and  is  highly  polished.  The  body 
is  hollow,  and  is  ornamented  with  six  longitudinal  grooves.  There  are 
eight  perforations.  In  one  of  these  a  close  fitting,  neatly  made  plug 
of  serpentine  had  been  inserted.  C.  C.  Willoughby  describes  this 
object  as  follows : — 


Fig.  31. 
Problematical  Form  in  Stone  from  Altar  2. 


"It  seems  probable  that  the  carving  (Fig.  37)  represents  an  owl, 
somewhat  conventionalized.  The  ear-tufts  appearing  over  the  eyes, 
and  the  curved  lines  which  extend  backwards  and  downwards  from  the 


138 


Hopewell  Mound  Group 


eyes  marking  the  outer  border  of  the  ruff,  seem  to  indicate  this  bird. 
The  surfaces  of  the  eye  cavities  are  unpolished.  Through  the  centre  of 
each  eye-depression  is  a  small  perforation  opening  into  the  hollow  of 
the  head.    Pearls  may  have  been  inserted  to  represent  eyes,  being  held 


Fig.  32. 
Problematical  Form  from  Altar  1. 


in  place  by  thread  fastened  inside  the  cavit}T.  The  incised  lines  upon 
the  head  of  the  carving  still  contain  a  small  quantity  of  the  red  pigment 
which  originally  filled  the  lines,  wholly  or  partially.  Along  the  back 
are  four  perforations,  less  than  2  mm  in  diameter.  There  are  two 
perforations  on  each  side,  one  near  the  front,  the  other  near  the  back. 


Fig.  33- 
Bar  Amulet  of  Stone  from  Altar  i. 


This  carving  has  been  highly  polished.  The  lines  are  of  uniform  width 
and  depth,  and  evince  a  great  deal  of  skill  on  the  part  of  the  artisan." 
Fig.  38  shows  the  effigy  of  a  human  thumb  made  from  cannel  coal, 
which  was  found  with  skeleton  278.  A  number  of  other  objects  of  this 
material  were  found  in  the  mounds,  although  those  placed  in  altars  had 


Polished  Stone  139 

been  almost  completely  destroyed.    Cannel  coal  could  have  been  secured 
at  Flint  Ridge,  the  nearest  outcrop,  or  in  West  Virginia. 

A  remarkable  series  of  stone  rings  were  found  in  Altar  1 .  Fourteen 
complete  specimens  were  recovered  together  with  several  scores  of 
fragments.  The  largest  is  6.5  cm  wide  and  1.75  cm  thick,  while  the 
smallest  is  5.5  cm  wide  and  1.75  cm  thick.  In  Plate  LXXVII,  Nos. 
1-2,  are  shown  two  of  the  best  specimens.  It  will  be  observed  that 
melted  copper  still  adheres  to  one  of  them.  Plate  LXXVII,  No.  3, 
illustrates  the  ordinary  form  of  these  rings.  "These  rings  are  made 
from  varieties  of  what  appears  to  be  slate,  some  containing  mica,  one 
apparently  from  the  same  material  as  one  of  the  pipes  from  Altar  2. 


Fig.  34. 
Bird   Stone. 

One  of  them  is  evidently  made  from  bituminous  slate,  the  inside  polished. 
The  exterior  groove  is  much  less  finely  finished  than  the  rest  of  it  or  the 
other  rings.  This  shows  marks  of  an  implement,  apparently  of  rough 
stone,  where  the  groove  has  been  worked  out.  The  groove  shows 
irregular  depressions,  also  marks  of  the  stone  tool,  running  lengthwise, 
but  not  parallel.  This  is  the  only  specimen  which  shows  marks  of  the 
stone  tool  used  in  forming  it  before  polishing." 

Plate  LXXVII,  No.  5,  as  described  by  Willoughby,  shows  "out- 
lines of  four  rings,  exhibiting  symmetry  of  form.  Some  rings  are  not 
pierced;  some  are  pierced  with  four,  and  others  with  eight  holes,  always 
in  pairs  placed  opposite  each  other.  The  rings  vary  in  size,  the  largest 
being  6  cm  in  diameter.     In  several  specimens,  the  drilling  seems  to 


140 


Hopewell  Mound  Group 


have  been  done  from  both  sides  with  the  holes  meeting  in  the  centre. 
Usually  the  inner  hole  is  at  only  a  slight  angle,  which  shows  that  the 
drill  must  have  been  small,  probably  made  of  meteoric  iron.  Two  rings 
formed  of  a  soft  slate  or  similar  substance,  one  of  which  is  shown  in 
Plate  LXXVII,  No.  4,  possibly  cannel  coal,  are  unsymmetrical,  and 
evidently  were  worked  out  by  hand.  These  rings  are  perforated  by 
four  pairs  of  holes  placed  opposite  each  other." 

Plate  LXXVII,  No.  4,  shows  a  ring,  or  rather  band,  without  flanges. 
It  seems  to  be  made  from  graphitic  slate.    It  has  four  pairs  of  holes. 

Pipes. — About  forty  pipes  were  taken  from  the 
Hopewell  mounds,  although  some  of  these  are  frag- 
mentary. The  prevailing  form  is  that  of  the  monitor 
or  platform  pipe  common  in  the  Ohio  mounds. 
This  needs  no  description.  An  angular-shaped  pipe 
of  soapstone  was,  however,  found  in  one  of  the 
ash-pits.  The  materials  used  for  the  monitor  pipes 
are  fine  grained  sandstone,  graphitic  slate,  a  marly 
limestone,  or  a  hard  clay  stone.  One  or  two 
specimens  were  made  from  a  stone  quite  similar  to 
catlinite.  Mills1  calls  this  material  Ohio  pipestone, 
and  gives  an  analysis.  The  color  of  some  of  the 
pipes  had  been  changed  to  a  deep  brownish  black 
by  smoking.  Four  nearly  identical  pipes  were  found 
in  Mound  25.  They  vary  in  length  between  10  and 
11  cm  and  in  width  between  4  and  5  cm.  The 
bowls  are  3-3.5  cm  high. 

Plate  LXXVII  I,  No.  1,  shows  a  very  fine  pipe 
of  hard  black  stone.  A  series  of  small  holes  encircle 
the  bowl  a  short  distance  below  the  rim;  4  mm 
below  these  is  a  corresponding  series  of  small 
projections.  On  the  body  of  the  pipe  con- 
ventionalized roseate  spoon-bill  heads  are  carved 
in  pairs.  The  finest  pipe  in  the  entire  collection  is  shown  in  Plate 
LXXVIII,  No.  2.  It  was  found  in  Altar  2.  Although  the  technique  of 
this  pipe  is  not  quite  equal  to  that  of  some  others,  it  ranks  as  one  of  the 
best  examples  of  aboriginal  carving  from  the  mounds  Of  the  Mississippi 
basin.  The  two  effigies  have  been  carved  from  a  solid  piece  of  fire  clay, 
and  great  skill  was  necessary  to  preserve  the  proportions  and  to  carve 
out  the  narrow  space  between  the  end  of  the  bill  and  the  head  of  the 


Fig.  35. 
Bear's  Tooth 
Carved  from 
Stone  from 

Altair   2. 


Certain  Mounds  and  Village  Sites  in  Ohio,  Vol.  I,  p.  132  (Columbus,  1917). 


Stone  Effigies 


141 


fish.  The  bowl  extends  through  the  back  and  body  of  the  bird  and 
into  the  fish.  The  stem  hole,  about  5  mm  in  diameter,  runs  through 
the  mouth  and  body  of  the  fish.  Undoubtedly  pearls  were  inserted  in 
the  eye-cavities  of  both  figures,  but  these  were  not  found  in  position. 

The  bird  represented  is  probably  the  roseate  spoon-bill.    The  neck 
is  disproportionately  short,  and  the  legs  and  feet  are  not  shown.     The 


■^^B^y^WM^^^^^^^^lW^^^^^^ 


Fig.  36. 
Stone  Effigy  of  Tadpole  (?). 

feathers  of  the  wings  and  tail  are  indicated.  The  bill  is  carefully 
executed.  The  line  extending  from  the  nostril  to  the  hooked  end  of  the 
beak,  which  is  characteristic  of  the  spoon-bill,  is  faithfully  shown. 
The  fish  is  conventionalized,  and  its  species  cannot  be  determined. 
The  scales  are  not  indicated,  and  possibly  the  artists  had  in  mind  the 
channel  catfish,  common  in  the  Scioto.  It  may  represent  one  of  the 
large  salamanders  common  in  the  southern  Ohio  streams.  Willoughby's 


Fig.  37. 
Effigy  of  Serpentine   (Owl?). 


observations  on  this  specimen  are  here  presented  in  condensed  form. 
It  was  not  moulded,  but  was  evidently  carved  from  soft  clay.  There 
are  several  little  depressions  or  indentations  upon  it,  apparently  made 
by  striking  it  with  some  implement  while  administering  the  finishing 
touches.  The  bill  had  been  broken  off  and  mended  before  the  pipe 
was  placed  on  the  altar.   The  Indians  had  bored  into  the  head  through 


142  Hopewell  Mound  Group 

the  broken  part  of  the  beak,  made  a  corresponding  hole  in  the  fragment, 
and  doweled  the  two  together.  The  pipe  is  dark  brown,  but  has  prob- 
ably been  darkened  by  the  altar  fires,  as  fresh  surfaces  show  light  gray 
or  clay  color.  Part  of  the  beak,  where  a  sliver  has  broken  off,  is  reddish. 
It  is  evident  that  the  pipe  had  been  wrapped  in,  or  placed  upon,  cloth; 
for  a  few  small  pieces  of  the  fabric  still  adhere  to  it. 

Mica. — Mention  has  already  been  made  of  the  great  find  of  mica 
in  Mound  17.  There  was  so  much  of  it  that  when  packed  for  shipment 
it  filled  two  barrels.  Some  of  the  larger  masses  or  books  were  50  cm 
in  diameter  and  1.5  cm  thick.  Mica  of  this  size  must  have  come  from 
surface  outcrops  in  North  Carolina.  The  West  Virginia  mica  blocks  are 
smaller;  and  New  Hampshire,  the  nearest  other  possible  source,  is  too 


Fig.  38. 
Effigy  of  Human  Thumb  Made  of  Cannel  Coal  from  Skeleton  278. 

far  away.  It  was  not  difficult  for  the  Indians  to  cut  mica  with  flint 
knives.  An  experiment  proved  that  squares  and  circles  could  be  cut 
from  thin  sheets  with  comparative  ease.  A  number  of  objects  of  cut 
mica,  most  of  which  were  found  in  Altar  i ,  are  shown  in  Plate  LXXIX 
and  Figs.  39  and  40.  Those  in  Fig.  40  were  probably  fragments  of 
larger  designs.  There  were  about  two  hundred  of  these  designs  includ- 
ing circles,  scallops,  knife  forms,  ovals,  human  heads,  and  unknown 
designs.  Willoughby  says  that  a  study  of  these  objects  and  of  the 
designs  in  copper,  as  well  as  on  shell  and  bone,  proves  that  the  Mound 
Builders  of  Ohio  had  attained  a  high  degree  of  skill  in  free-hand  drawing, 
and  that  they  employed  as  aids  guidelines,  straight  edges,  and  some 
form  of  artificial  aid  in  drawing  circles. 


BfiC  28  192:2 

Mica  and  Fossils 


143 


Fossils. — Fossils  were  found  in  Altar  2  and  with  a  few  burials. 
Geologists  who  examined  them  tell  me  they  are  foreign  to  Ohio.  The 
shark  teeth,  ranging  in  length  from  20  mm  to  10  cm,  are  probably  from 
the  phosphate  beds  of  North  and  South  Carolina.  Three  of  them  are 
shown  in  Fig.  41.  Fig.  42  shows  the  most  interesting  fossil  found, 
described  by  Willoughby  as  follows:  "The  beautiful  iridescence  of  the 
fossil,  before  it  was  burned,  is  suggested  by  a  portion  upon  one  side 
untouched  by  fire.  The  fossil  was  cut  across  forming  a  flat  base. 
On  the  upper  side  near  each  end  is  a  countersunk  depression,  communi- 
cating with  a  hole  about  3  mm  in 
diameter,  running  downward  and 
slightly  outward  towards  the  ends, 
and  penetrating  the  fossil.  Pearls 
were  probably  inserted  in  the 
countersunk  depressions.  Two  small 
holes,  a  little  over  2  mm  in  diameter, 
penetrate  the  fossil  laterally  near 
the  lower  edge,  intersecting  the 
other  perforations.  This  fossil  was 
evidently  used  for  the  same  purpose 
as  some  of  the  carvings,  being 
perforated  in  like  manner." 

Objects  of  Shell. — The  usual 
cups  or  vessels  cut  from  buscyon  and 
pyrula  shells  were  found  at  Hope- 
well. They  are  of  common  forms, 
varying  in  length  from  15  to  28  cm. 
Quantities  of  beads  were  found  in 
the  altars  and  with  burials.  Those 
of  shell  do  not  differ  from  the  shell 
beads  commonly  found  in  the 
mounds  of  the  Ohio  Valley,  so  that  a 

detailed  description  is  not  necessary.  Shell  gorgets  and  shell  ornaments 
were  placed  in  the  altars,  but  were  almost  completely  destroyed  by  fire. 
A  few  fragments  were  found,  but  the  painstaking  attempts  at  restora- 
tion have  failed.  There  are  fragments  of  elaborate  relief  carvings  of 
birds,  animals,  and  other  objects,  and  of  gorgets  bearing  geometrical 
or  highly  conventionalized  designs  carved  with  consummate  skill.  The 
shell  pendant  shown  in  Fig.  43  was  found  in  Altar  2.  It  is  about  4  cm 
long,  and  is  made  from  the  thick  part  of  a  large  shell.  It  would  be 
interesting  to  know  the  exact  number  of  pearls  recovered  from  the 


Fig.  39. 
Mica  Ornament  from  Altar 


144 


Hopewell  Mound  Group 


Fig.  40. 
Parts  of  Mica  Ornaments. 


Fossils 


145 


Hopewell  mounds.  They  have  never  been  counted,  but  I  estimate  the 
number  at  over  a  hundred  thousand.  They  range  in  size  from  minute 
examples  1  mm  in  diameter  to  some  nearly  15  mm  in  diameter.    Many 


Fig.  41. 

Fossil  Shark's  Teeth  Ornaments 

(a  from  Altar  2,  b  from  Mound  17,  c  from  Mound   18). 


'  ■^jt'K  f ^iS^^f^lpi  :|^J^P?w*^?,^ 


Fig.  42. 
A  Fossil  made  into  an  Ornament  from  Altair  1. 


are  perfect,  but  others  are  of  the  inferior  grades  known  as  slugs  or  hinge 
pearls.    G.  F.  Kunz    once  informed  me  that  the  Hopewell  pearls  in 


146 


Hopewell  Mound  Group 


their  original  condition,  before  they  were  buried,  were  worth  at  least 
one  million  dollars.  Some  of  the  pearls  are  shown  in  Plate  LXXX. 
Many  of  the  specimens  were  drilled  very  carefully.  There  is  no  evidence 
that  they  were  perforated  by  means  of  a  strip  of  heated  copper  wire,  as 
has  been  suggested.  A  portion  of  a  small  drill  or  meteoric  iron  was  found 
in  one  specimen.  The  drilling  of  these  thousands  of  beads  was  certainly 
a  long  and  laborious  process.  Willoughby's  study  of  how  pearls  were 
drilled  is  presented  in  Fig.  44.  He  makes  the  following  comments: — 
"The  diagramatic  drawings  shown  in  Fig.  44  illustrate  the  various 

ways  in  which  the  pearls  were  perforated : 
a,  b,  c,  and  d  have  single  perforations. 
In  a,  the  hole  is  low  upon  the  side,  and 
the  pearl  was  probably  sewn  to  some 
object,  not  strung  as  a  bead.  E  and  / 
have  a  single  perforation  made  by  two 
holes  drilled  at  angles,  meeting  in  the 
interior  of  the  pearl;  g  has  two  oblique 
perforations;  h  has  a  lateral  perforation, 
and  meeting  it  at  right  angles  is  another 
hole  drilled  from  the  bottom  of  the  speci- 
men; i,  /,  and  k  have  two  perforations 
intersecting  almost  at  right  angles.  The 
pearls  represented  in  /,  m,  n,  0,  and  p, 
have  cut  surfaces  which  are  indicated 
by  dotted  lines.  In  n  and  p  the  bottom 
is  flat,  and  the  edges  carefully  beveled  as 
though  for  insertion  into  a  corresponding 
cavity  in  some  object.  Pearls  inlaid  in 
bear's  teeth  occasionally  have  the  lower 
side  cut  to  fit  the  cavity  in  the  tooth. 
Many  of  the  pearls  are  perforated  by 
drilling  from  opposite  sides,  as  indicated 
by  the  countersunk  holes  which  usually  meet  near  the  centre  of  the 
bead.  It  is  evident  that  a  large  number  of  the  small  and  medium- 
sized  beads  were  penetrated  from  one  side  only  by  a  slender  drill  of 
copper  or  meteoric  iron,  for  the  holes  in  many  instances  are  so  small 
and  regular  they  could  not  have  been  made  with  a  flint  point." 

A  complete  study  of  this  interesting  subject  has  been  published  by 
G.  F.  Kunz,1  from  whose  book  the  following  is  quoted: — 


Fig.  43. 
An  Ornament  of 

Shell  from  Altar  2 


!The  Book  of  the  Pearl,  pp.  485-489  (New  York,  1908). 


Pearls 


147 


"The  use  of  pearls  by  the  aborigines  of  the  territory  now  comprised  in  the 
United  States  is  proven  by  their  appearance  in  the  mounds  and  certain  graves  of 
pre-Columbian  date.  This  is  of  great  interest  in  view  of  the  unique  system  of  burial 
and  the  great  variety  of  objects  buried  with  the  pearls.  It  is  evident  from  the  quanti- 
ties discovered  in  some  of  the  mounds  that  a  very  great  number  of  pearls,  many  of 
large  size,  must  have  been  owned  by  these  aborigines,  and  they  were  evidently 
quite  expert  in  the  art  of  drilling  them.  Pearls  must  have  been  freely  used  for 
ornamental  purposes,  and  it  is  clear  that  many  rivers  in  this  region  must  have 
produced  them  in  great  numbers,  when  we  consider  that  in  all  probability  the  mussels 


/ 


J 


77V 


Fig.  44. 
Pearl   Beads  Showing  Methods  of   Perforation. 


were  taken  only  as  they  were  required  for  food  or  for  bait  in  fishing,  and  had  probably 
reached  their  full  growth. 

"It  is  not  unlikely  that  pearls  were  used  on  this  continent  for  a  long  period, 
and  they  may  have  been  in  use  centuries  before  any  employment  was  made  of  them 
in  Europe.  In  the  age  of  the  mound-builders  there  were  as  many  pearls  in  the  posses- 
sion of  a  single  tribe  of  Indians  as  existed  in  any  European  court.  We  have  no 
means  of  ascertaining  the  precise  date  of  any  of  these  burials,  and  there  are  no  histori- 
cal records  relating  to  this  region,  such  as  were  kept  in  Mexico,  as  well  as  in  Europe 
and  Asia.    No  trace  has  been  found  of  the  employment  of  pearls,  either  for  decoration 


148  Hopewell  Mound  Group 

or  ornament,  by  the  aborigines  of  Europe  or  Asia;  either  they  did  not  use  them, 
or  else  the  pearls  have  entirely  passed  away  in  the  course  of  twenty  or  more  centuries. 
We  do  know,  however,  that  neither  pearls  nor  Unio  shells  were  used  by  any  of  the 
lake-dwellers  of  Switzerland  or  the  adjacent  countries. 

"It  is  not  unlikely  that  the  Indians  of  the  Atlantic  coast  may  have  known  of 
pearls  from  the  common  clam,  as  well  as  from  the  edible  oyster.  The  former  may 
have  often  contained  pearls  weighing  from  fifty  to  one  hundred  grains  each,  as  at 
that  period  the  mollusks  were  permitted  to  attain  their  full  growth,  and  perhaps 
were  not  eaten,  except  when  they  were  as  small  as  little-neck  clams;  the  larger 
ones  were  sought  for  the  purple  spot  which  held  the  muscle,  and  was  used  for  wam- 
pum. We  have  no  record  of  the  finding  of  pearls  in  any  graves  north  of  Virginia, 
as  the  many  graves  opened  in  the  past  century  have  failed  to  reveal  them,  nor  has 
the  use  of  pearls  been  mentioned  by  any  of  the  early  writers.  They  may  have  been 
worn,  but  if  so,  they  have  passed  away,  or  may  have  been  mistaken  for  ashes  if 
they  had  decrepitated. 

"The  first  English  settlers  found  the  Indians  of  the  tidewater  region  of  what 
now  constitutes  the  Middle  States  using  pearls  quite  freely  and  esteeming  them 
among  their  favorite  treasures  and  ornaments.  Captain  John  Smith,  and  all  the 
early  chroniclers  of  the  Virginia  colony,  have  given  many  accounts  of  this  aboriginal 
use  of  pearls. 

"Pearls  of  various  shapes  and  sizes  were  comparatively  common,  but  symmetrical 
pearls  of  uniform  size  were  more  rare.  Strachey  writes  of  having  seen  'manie  chaynes 
and  braceletts  (of  pearls)  worne  by  the  people,  and  wee  have  found  plentie  of  them 
in  the  sepulchers  of  their  kings,  though  discoloured  by  burning  the  oysters  in  the 
fier,  and  deformed  by  grosse  boring.'  One  of  Hariot's  companions  obtained  from 
the  Indians  about  five  thousand  pearls,  from  which  a  sufficient  number  of  good 
quality  and  of  uniform  size  were  obtained  to  make  a  'fayre  chaine,  which  for  their 
likeness  and  uniformitie  in  roundness,  orientness  and  pidenesse  of  many  excellent 
colours,  with  equalitie  in  greatnesse,  were  verie  fayre  and  rare." 

"Those  who  have  examined  the  thousands  of  pearls  from  Ohio  mounds,  to  be 
mentioned  later,  can  readily  understand  these  conditions.  The  pearl  beads  from 
the  mounds  vary  in  diameter  from  about  an  eighth  of  an  inch  to  nearly  an  inch, 
the  great  majority  being  small  and  irregular,  although  there  are  many  among  them 
of  good  form  and  value.  It  is  probable  that  most  of  the  Virginia  pearls  were  obtained 
from  the  fresh-water  mussel  {Unio);  not  unlikely  from  the  common  marine  clam 
{Venus  mercenaria) ,  or  the  common  oyster  {Ostrea  virginica). 

"As  regards  the  burial  of  pearls  with  the  dead  and  their  use  in  religious  rites, 
curious  and  quite  full  accounts  are  given  by  Strachey,  Smith,  Hariot,  and  Beverley.2 
There  was  a  'temple,'  also  occupied  as  a  residence  by  one  or  more  priests,  in  the 
territory  of  every  chief.  This  building  was  usually  some  eighteen  or  twenty  feet 
wide,  and  varied  in  length  from  thirty  to  one  -hundred  feet,  with  an  entrance  at 
the  eastern  end,  and  the  western  portion  partitioned  off  with  mats  to  form  a  sort 
of  sanctuary  or  'chancel.'  Within  this  were  kept  the  dried  bodies  of  deceased  chiefs, 
and  an  image  of  the  god,  called,  Okee,  made  in  the  shape  of  a  man,  'all  black,  dressed 
with  chaynes  of  perle.'  Full  descriptions  of  these  idols  and  their  manufacture  are 
given  by  Hariot  and  Beverley,  also  of  the  process  of  preserving  the  remains  of  the 
chiefs.3  After  the  body  had  been  disemboweled,  the  skin  was  laid  back,  and  the 
flesh  was  cut  away  from  the  bones.  When  this  operation  was  completed,  the  skeleton, 
held  together  by  its  ligaments,  was  again  inclosed  in  the  skin,  and  stuffed  with  white 
sand,  or  with  'pearle,  copper,  beads,  and  such  trash  sowed  in  a  skynne.'4  It  was 
then  dressed  in  fine  skins  and  adorned  with  all  sorts  of  valuables,  including  strings 
of  pearls  and  beads.  The  same  kinds  of  treasures  were  also  deposited  in  a  basket 
at  the  feet  of  the  mummy. 

1Thomas  Hariot,  A  Brief  and  True  Report  of  the  New  Found  Land  of 
Virginia,  p.    11    (Holbein  edition). 

2Willoughby,  American  Anthropologist,  Vol.  IX,   1907,  pp.  61,  62. 

3Beverley,  History  of  Virginia  (1722),  pp.  167,  186. 

4Strachey,  Historie  of  Travaile  into  Virginia  Britannica,  p.  89  (Hakluyt  Soc, 
London,  1849). 


Pearls  and  Bone  Beads 


149 


"Captain  John  Smith  describes  the  temple  of  Powhatan,  at  Uttamussack, 
which  was  in  charge  of  seven  priests,  and  was  held  in  great  awe  by  'the  salvages.' 
At  a  place  called  Orapaks,  was  also  his  treasure-house,  fifty  or  sixty  yards  long, 
frequented  only  by  priests,  where  he  kept  a  great  amount  of  skins,  beads,  pearls, 
and  copper,  stored  up  against  the  time  of  his  death  and  burial.  A  vivid  account 
is  given  of  the  four  grotesque  images  that  stood  guard  at  the  corners  of  this  building, 
all  made  'evill  favouredly  according  to  their  best  workmanship.'1 

In  the  province  called  Catifachique,  De  Soto  captured  an  Indian 
woman  who  seems  to  have  had  authority  over  the  other  Indians.  He 
questioned  her  as  to  pearls  and  other  valuables.  Concerning  great 
numbers  of  pearls  in  use  in  her  province,  his  journal  states  as  follows  :2 

"The  Cacica,  observing  that  the  Christians  valued  pearls,  told  the  Governor 
that,  if  he  should  order  some  sepulchres  that  were  in  the  town  to  be  searched,  he 
would  find  many;  and  if  he  chose  to  send  to  those  that  were  in  the  uninhabited 
towns,  he  might  load  all  his  horses  with  them.  They  examined  those  in  the  town, 
and  found  three  hundred  and  fifty  pounds  weight  of  pearls,  and  figures  of  babies 
and  birds  made  of  them." 

Objects  of  Bone,  Teeth,  and  Claws. — A  number  of  bone  beads 
were  found,  325  being  obtained  from  Altar  1.    The  total  number  was 


Fig.  45. 
Three  Bone  Awls  from  Mound  25. 

probably  about  3,600.  Considering  the  number  of  skeletons  found, 
they  do  not  appear  to  have  been  very  popular,  probably  because  they 
were  too  common.  The  beads  seem  to  have  been  made  chiefly  from  the 
slender  bones  of  small  animals  or  birds.  690  foot-bones  of  small  animals 
were  recovered  from  the  ashes  of  Altar  2.  They  were  not  perforated, 
and  their  use  is  problematical.  A  large  number  of  pointed  bone  tools 
were  discovered,  but  very  few  of  these  could  be  classed  as  ordinary  bone 


^mith,  True  Travels,  p.  143  (Richmond  edition,  1819). 

2Narratives  of  De  Soto,  translation  of  Buckingham  Smith,  Vol.  I,  p.  66  (New 
York,  1904). 


i5o 


Hopewell  Mound  Group 


awls.  They  were  long  and  slender,  or  small  and  delicate,  and  had  very 
sharp  points.  Many  of  them  had  been  broken  while  still  in  the  ground, 
while  others  had  been  badly  damaged  by  the  altar  fires.  Fig.  45  shows 
three  of  the  ordinary  bone  awls.  It  is  unfortunate  that  none  of  the  very 
slender  implements  were  well  enough  preserved  to  be  studied.  Fig.  46 
shows  fragments  of  needles.  Ten  or  twelve  objects,  which  were 
probably  used  in  weaving,  were  recovered,  but  all  were  badly  broken. 
A  restoration  of  one  is  shown  in  Fig.  47. 


Fig.  46. 

Perforated    Needles 

from   Post-Hole 

in  Mound  25. 


Fig.  47- 
Fragment  of  a 
Bone   Shuttle. 


A  few  other  bone  tools  were  recovered.  One  of  these  was  a  fragment 
of  a  human  ulna  over  one  end  of  which  there  was  a  small  piece  of  meteoric 
iron.  A  band  of  the  same  material,  i  cm  wide,  encircled  it  a  short 
distance  below  this.  About  four  hundred  bears'  claws  were  found, 
principally  in  the  altars. 

About  five  hundred  cut  and  perforated  bear  incisors  were  originally 
placed  in  the  various  mounds  of  the  Hopewell  group.  Willoughby  made 
a  careful  study  of  these  ornaments,  and  his  observations  are  herewith 


Bone  Objects  and  Teeth 


151 


given:  "Judging  from  the  number  of  cut  or  perforated  canine  teeth  of 
the  bear  found  with  skeletons  or  taken  from  altars  of  the  Hopewell 
group  of  mounds,  it  would  seem  that  they  were  highly  prized  as  orna- 
ments, and  that  much  time  was  employed  in  drilling,  cutting,  and 
ornamenting  these  trophies  of  the  chase.  They  may  be  divided  into 
three  classes:  the  whole  teeth  perforated  and  ornamented  in  various 
ways,  as  illustrated  in  Figs.  49 — 5 1 ;  the  teeth  split  lengthwise  (Fig.  48) ; 
and  those  cut  laterally  (Figs.  53 — 55).  Of  twenty-eight  teeth  of  the 
first  class  found  with  six  skeletons,  the  majority  had  two  diagonal  holes 


Fig.  48. 
Bear's  Tooth   Split  and   Made  into  an   Ornament. 


drilled  so  as  to  meet  in  the  interior  of  the  tooth,  as  illustrated  in  the 
sectional  drawing  (Fig.  56,  a,  b,  and  c)  and  in  the  left  drawing  of  Fig. 
49.  In  a  few  examples  the  two  holes  were  drilled  more  at  right  angles  to 
the  length  of  the  tooth,  and  penetrated  the  natural  nerve  cavity.  These 
teeth  may  have  been  attached  to  the  clothing  as  toggles  or  used  as 
pendants  for  necklaces.  In  Fig.  49  are  shown  three  bears'  teeth  of  this 
class,  found  with  skeleton  248.  The  central  and  right  drawings  illustrate 
the  front  side  of  the  teeth,  which  were  ornamented  by  inserting  pearls. 
The  cavity  near  the  upper  end  of  the  central  drawing  probably  con- 
tained a  pearl.  Near  the  centre  of  the  drawing  at  the  right,  a  deep 
countersunk  hole  opens  into  a  similar  hole  drilled  from  the  opposite 
side.    Both  teeth  have  the  perforation  for  suspension  upon  the  back. 

"The  tooth  represented  at  the  left  in  Fig.  49  has  three  countersunk 
perforations  extending  to  the  natural  pulp  cavity.    Below  are  the  two 


152 


Hopewell  Mound  Group 


diagonal  holes  for  suspension.  A  little  to  the  right  of  the  junction  of 
the  diagonal  holes  is  a  single  perforation  into  the  interior  cavity.  Near 
the  upper  end  of  the  opposite  side  is  a  cavity  into  which  a  pearl  had 
probably  been  inserted.  In  Fig.  56,  /  and  h,  are  cross-sections  of  the 
two  outer  teeth  represented  in  Fig.  49,  and  show  the  relative  position  of 
holes  upon  opposite  sides.  Fig.  50  represents  both  sides  of  a  tooth, 
taken  with  several  others  from  skeleton  270.     Upon  one  side  are  two 


Fig.  49. 

Bears'  Teeth   Ornaments  with   Pearls  Inserted    (Specimen  on   the  Left  from 

Skeleton  248,  Specimens  in   Centre  and  on  the  Right  from  Skeleton  209). 


countersunk  holes  opening  into  the  natural  cavity.  Into  these  holes  two 
smaller  perforations  enter  obliquely.  It  is  doubtful  if  pearls  were 
inserted  in  the  larger  openings,  as  the  cavities  are  much  deeper  and  of  a 
different  form  than  those  usually  drilled  for  pearls.  There  are  three 
transverse  grooves  near  the  upper  end,  which  do  not  encircle  the  tooth. 
Several  of  the  teeth  had  become  cracked  or  broken  while  in  possession 
of  the  Indians,  and  had  been  neatly  mended  by  inserting  a  bone  plug 


Tooth  Ornaments 


153 


or  dowel.    One  of  these  repaired  teeth  is  shown  in  Fig.  51.    The  sharp 
edges  caused  by  the  break  were  carefully  rounded  and  polished.     In 


Fig.  50. 
Rear's  Tooth  Ornament,  Roth  Sides  Illustrated. 


Fig.  51. 
Rear's  Tooth  Ornament. 


another  example  the  tooth  was  split  for  nearly  its  entire  length,  and  had 
been  repaired  by  inserting  a  dowel  which  penetrated  the  tooth  laterally 


154 


Hopewell  Mound  Group 


and  held  the  two  halves  firmly  together.    This  was  found  with  skeleton 
278. 

"The  sectional  drawings  in  Fig.  56  show  the  various  ways  in  which 
the  teeth  are  drilled.  Usually  there  is  a  small  perforation  extending 
through  the  tooth  from  the  bottom  of  the  cavity  in  which  the  pearl  is 
placed,  as  shown  near  the  upper  end  of  c,  f,  and  g.    All  the  pearls  found 

inserted  in  the  teeth  are  perforated.  It  is 
probable  that  they  were  held  in  place  by 
threads  passed  through  the  pearl  and  the 
small  perforation  in  the  tooth,  and  fastened 
there  by  inserting  a  small  plug.  In  other 
specimens  the  small  perforations  extend 
into  the  diagonal  holes  through  which  the 
suspending  cord  is  passed  as  in  d  and  a. 
This  also  would  allow  the  pearl  to  be 
fastened  by  a  thread.  In  a  few  instances, 
the  pearl  must  have  been  cemented  into 
the  cavity,  as  there  is  no  perforation  in  the 
tooth  for  the  thread ;  b  and  the  lower  cavity 
in  g  are  examples.  The  second  class  consists 
of  teeth  that  have  been  split,  or  ground 
upon  one  side  until  less  than  half  of  the 
tooth  remains.  They  were  found  associated 
with  the  teeth  already  described.  In  Fig.  48 
are  shown  two  views  of  a  typical  specimen. 
The  cut  side  is  carefully  polished,  and  is 
perforated  by  three  holes,  of  nearly  the  same 
diameter  throughout.  There  are  usually 
three  holes,  rarely  four;  and  in  a  single 
instance,  one  small  perforation  appears  near 
the  upper  end.  The  third  class  consists  of 
bears'  teeth  cut  in  the  various  ways  illus- 
trated in  Figs.  53 — 55.  The  interior  of  each 
specimen  has  been  hollowed  out,  and  there 
is  a  lateral  perforation  near  the  upper  end. 
A  similar  object,  made  from  the  point  of  a  tooth  instead  of  the  root,  is 
shown  in  Fig.  53  c.  The  interior  has  been  hollowed  as  in  the  preceding 
specimen,  and  a  very  small  perforation  extends  through  the  point. 
This  and  the  following  specimen  (d)  were  found  with  skeleton  271. 

"The  object  illustrated  in  e  was  discovered  with  skeleton  209.  The 
two  diagonal  holes,  forming  the  perforation  by  wdiich  the  ornament  was 


Fig.  52. 

Bear's  Tooth  Ornament 

Imitated  in  Shell. 


Tooth  Ornaments 


155 


suspended,  are  shown  in  the  drawing.  Upon  the  reverse  side  is  a  cavity 
for  the  insertion  of  a  pearl.  The  cut  end  of  the  tooth  has  an  oval  counter- 
stink  depression,  and  from  this  a  hole  extends  into  the  tooth,  one  and 
one- fourth  inches.  F  and  g  are  cut  from  the  root-ends  of  teeth,  and  the 
entire  surfaces  of  both  are  highly  polished.  Each  specimen  has  a  small 
lateral  perforation  at  its  upper  end.    F  also  has  the  longitudinal  per- 


Fig.  53- 
Cut  and  Ground  Bears'  Teeth  Ornaments. 


foration  and  countersunk  depression  in  common  with  c.  G  has  the 
depression  of  the  reception  of  the  pearl  upon  the  side  shown  in  the 
drawing,  and  the  perforation  for  suspension  upon  the  other  side.  It  is 
apparent  that  e  and  g  originally  belonged  to  the  first  class  of  ornaments, 
and  were  subsequently  cut  into  the  form  shown.  The  purpose  for  which 
these  objects  were  used  is,  of  course,  merely  conjecture ;  but  it  is  probable 
that  they  formed  a  part  of  ornaments  composed  partially  of  perishable 
material.  Fig.  54  shows  a  sectional  drawing  of  portions  of  two  teeth 
having  peculiar  perforations.    Fig.  55  illustrates  a  series  of  pairs  of  cut 


156 


Hopewell  Mound  Group 


teeth  found  with  various  skeletons.  The  first  pair  (a)  are  probably  the 
teeth  of  the  panther,  and  are  cut  in  a  peculiar  manner.  B  and  c  accom- 
panied skeleton  213  of  Mound  23.  With  this  skeleton  were  found 
fragments  of  a  remarkably  fine  textile  fabric.  The  interior  of  the  pair 
of  teeth,  shown  in  b,  has  been  removed,  and  opening  into  each  of  these 
cavities  are  four  perforations.  On  the  reverse  side  from  that  shown,  the 
cut  ends  of  the  teeth  are  semicircular  instead  of  straight;  and  when 
the  teeth  are  placed  together,  a  hole  is  formed,  about  one-half  an  inch 
in  diameter,  into  which  a  pearl  may  have  been  inserted.  It  is  probable 
that  these  teeth,  with  cut  ends  joined,  were  sewn  to  cloth  or  leather. 
In  c,  the  teeth  are  cut  diagonally,  and  a  hole  is  drilled  into  the  cut  end 
of  each  tooth  at  one  side  of  the  pulp  cavity.    D  and  e  were  taken,  with 

other  canine  teeth  of  the  bear,  from 
the  skeleton  having  the  copper  head- 
dress in  the  form  of  deer  antlers.  In 
d,  the  teeth  are  simply  cut  across,  as 
shown  in  the  drawing,  exposing  the 
natural  pulp  cavity.  In  e,  the  interior 
of  each  tooth  has  been  removed,  and 
the  cut  edges  are  somewhat  disinteg- 
rated. The  pair  indicated  at/  have  the 
natural  pulp  cavity  enlarged,  and  the 
cut  ends  somewhat  rounded.  There 
is  a  small  perforation  into  the  cavity  through  the  wall  of  each  tooth. 

"More  than  one  hundred  and  twenty  canine  teeth  of  the  bear,  cut 
and  ornamented  in  a  similar  manner  to  the  specimens  illustrated,  were 
taken  from  the  altars  of  the  large  mound.  These  ornaments  are  frag- 
mentary, and  are  colored  black  throughout  by  the  confined  smoke  of 
the  altar  fires.  In  two  specimens,  the  cavity  for  the  pearl  is  surrounded 
by  a  circular  row  of  small,  shallow  holes.  Not  only  were  the  canine 
bears'  teeth  cut,  sawed,  and  ornamented  in  various  ways  by  the  builders 
of  the  great  Ohio  earthworks,  but  they  were  so  highly  prized  as  orna- 
ments that  their  form  was  copied  in  antler,  shell,  stone,  copper,  and 
wood.  In  a  few  instances,  the  counterfeit  was  so  well  executed  that  it 
deceived  professional  archaeologists. ' ' 

Fig.  35  (on  p.  140)  is  an  imitation  bear's  tooth  made  of  what 
appears  to  be  limestone.  Fig.  57  is  one  of  a  pair  of  ornaments  made  of 
wood,  carefully  covered  with  thin  copper.  One  side  is  imperfect,  and  a 
few  fragments  are  missing;  but  a  diagonal  perforation  still  remains 
which  shows  that  they  were  fastened  or  suspended  in  the  same  manner 
as  genuine  teeth.    Fig.  52  is  a  drawing  of  an  imitation  tooth  made  of  a 


Fig.   54- 
Sectional  Drawings  of  Teeth   (a  from 
Skeleton  241,  b  from  Skeleton  277). 


Panther  and  Bear's  Teeth 


157 


very  compact  shell  that  has  been  cut  across  diagonally.  A  hole,  15  mm 
deep,  was  drilled  in  the  cut  end.  This  specimen  was  taken  from  one  of 
the  altars  of  the  large  mound,  and  was  blackened  by  the  penetrating 
smoke  of  the  smothered  fires. 

"The  most  perfect  counterfeit  tooth  in  the  collection  is  made  of  a 
piece  of  deer  antler,  and  was  taken  from  skeleton  278  (Fig.  58).    Accom- 


Fig.  55- 
Cut  and  Worked  Panther's  and  Bear's  Teeth. 


panying  this  ornament  were  several  genuine  bears'  teeth,  two  having 
inserted  pearls.  Near  the  upper  end  of  the  counterfeit  tooth  are  two 
rows  of  eight  shallow  holes.  Near  the  centre  of  the  ornament  is  the 
cavity  for  a  pearl,  and  upon  the  other  side  appear  the  two  diagonal 
holes  for  suspension  or  for  fastening  the  object  to  cloth  or  dressed  skin. 
The  root  ends  of  the  two  genuine  bear's  teeth,  with  inserted  pearls, 


i58 


Hopewell  Mound  Group 


found  with  this  specimen,  are  decorated  with  similar  double  rows  of 
dots,  one  specimen  having  fourteen  of  these  shallow  depressions,  and 
its  companion  sixteen.  These  dots  do  not  encircle  the  ends  of  the  teeth, 
but  appear  only  upon  the  side  having  the  pearls.  Here  I  should  like  to 
call  attention  to  the  number  of  well-executed  carvings  on  both  bone  and 
antler,  which  were  found  with  this  same  skeleton  278.  Many  of  the 
canine  teeth  of  the  wolf,  fox,  opossum,  and  other  mammals,  with  one 
perforation  near  the  end  of  the  tooth,  were  taken  from  the  two  altars  in 
the  large  mound.  Some  of  these  small  teeth  have  the  two  diagonal 
holes  upon  one  side  for  the  passage  of  the  thread,  which  probably  secured 


Fig.  56. 
Outlines  Showing  Perforationrs  in  Bears'  Teeth. 


them  to  the  ancient  dress  of  their  owner.  Over  five  hundred  of  the  canine 
teeth  having  a  single  perforation  were  found  with  skeleton  207  in  Mound 
23.  Several  are  still  held  in  place  by  a  lump  of  clay,  which  shows  them 
to  have  been  strung  upon  a  cord  when  deposited  with  the  body. 
Fragments  of  the  cut  jaws  of  the  bear,  deer,  lynx,  fox,  and  man,  were 
taken  from  the  altars  or  found  with  skeletons." 

Carvings  on  Bone. — The  number  of  effigies  and  bone  tracings 
found  leads  us  to  conclude  that  the  Hopewell  people  possessed  many  of 
these  artistically  carved  objects.  Those  placed  in  the  altars  had  suffered 
more  than  any  other  objects,  except  possibly  the  shell  gorgets,  and  most 
of  those  shown  "in  Figs.  59 — 68  have  been  restored.  The  specimen  in 
Fig.  59  has  been  partly  broken,  but  enough  remains  to  show  a  design 
similar  to  some  of  those  upon  sheet  copper.  At  one  end  are  what  appear 
to  be  bears'  claws,  or  a  bear's-foot  symbol.  The  broken  end  appears  to 
have  borne  a  different  design.  Fig.  60  shows  a  bird's  head  carved  from 
either  bone  or  antler.    There  is  a  small  perforation  for  suspension  at 


Bone  Carvings 


159 


the  back  of  the  neck.  Fig.  61  is  a  bird's  head,  quite  raven-like  in 
character.  It  probably  formed  part  of  a  hollow  object,  the  rest  of  which 
was  destroyed  by  the  fire.  A  pearl  had  been  inserted  in  the  eye-socket. 
Fig.  62  shows  three  examples  of  bone  carving;  a  is  made  from  the 
femur  of  some  large  animal,  and  was  probably  the  handle  of  a  ceremonial 


Fig.  57. 
Imitation  Bear's  Tooth  in  Wood  Covered  with  Copper  from   Skeleton  177. 

implement.  The  surface  has  been  scraped,  and  the  joint  cut  in  the  form 
illustrated.  The  interesting  feature  is  that  a  thin  strip  of  meteoric  iron 
was  placed  across  the  end,  and  a  band  or  ferrule  of  the  same  material 
fastened  around  and  riveted.  A  portion  of  the  iron  which  still  adheres 
is  shown  in  the  drawing.  Fig.  62  b  is  a  fragment  of  a  delicately  incised 
bone  object  of  unknown  use,  while  c  is  the  end  of  a  well-polished  object. 


Fig.  58. 
Imitation   Bear's  Tooth   Carved  from  Antler  from   Skeleton  278. 


Fig.  63  a  represents  a  bird  whose  species  cannot  be  identified.  It  is 
one  of  the  most  spirited  designs  found.  Fig.  63  b  shows  the  complete 
design  of  the  same  object.  Fig.  64  is  a  carving  of  an  ocelot  of  which 
Willoughby  says,  "This  carving,  only  a  portion  of  which  could  be  found, 
is  beautifully  executed  upon  what  appears  to  be  human  bone.     The 


i6o 


Hopewell  Mound  Group 


larger  end  is  cut  and  ground.  The  design  appears  to  have  been  carried 
beyond  this  present  end,  and  it  may  have  been  broken  and  ground 
down  by  the  aborigines.  The  opposite  end  shows  fractures  caused  b}' 
the  altar  fires.  The  design  does  not  appear  to  have  been  carved  further 
on  this  end;  but,  as  several  pieces  are  missing,  it 
is  impossible  to  tell  this  with  certainty." 

With  reference  to  Fig.  65,  Willoughby  states, 
"The  most  interesting  carving  in  antler  is  here 
shown.  This  is  probably  intended  to  represent  a 
bird  of  the  hawk  family,  judging  by  the  notch  in  the 
upper  mandible.  A  conventionalized  human  face 
is  drawn  on  the  head.  This  might  be  considered 
merely  the  indication  of  a  crest,  but  I  do  not  think 
that  it  was  so  intended.  The  terminations  of  the 
wing  covets  are  conventionalized,  the  carving  is 
hollow;  and  the  perforation  on  the  back,  shown  in 
the  drawing,  communicates  to  this  opening.  This 
specimen  is  finely  finished,  and  doubtless  had  pearls 
inlaid  for  eyes.  A  fragment  of  another  very  inter- 
esting antler  carving,  shown  in  Fig.  61,  represents 
the  head  and  shoulder  of  one  wing  of  a  raven. 
Enough  of  the  body  of  the  bird  remains  to  show  the 
hollow  opening  usually  present  in  this  style  of  work. 
The  perfect  specimen  represented  the  body  and 
head  of  this  bird.  A  portion  of  the  reverse  side  of 
the  head  from  that  shown  is  missing.  A  pearl  still 
remains  in  the  eye-cavity.  It  is  probable  that  the 
eyes  of  most  of  the  carvings  that  have  a  hollow 
eye-cavity  were  inserted  or  represented  in  the  same 
manner.  Single  fragments  of  several  objects  of  the 
same  character  were  found,  the  rest  being  utterly 
ruined  by  altar  fires."  Figs.  20  and  21  on  p.  128 
(the  latter  illustrating  the  separation  of  the  design 
into  parts)  show  one  of  the  most  interesting 
objects  found.  Willoughby  observes  in  regard  to  it,  "This  is  the  most 
remarkable  incised  carving  recovered  during  the  exploration  and  one 
of  the  most  interesting  yet  obtained  from  the  mounds.  The  bone, 
probably  a  portion  of  a  human  femur,  has  been  artificially  shaped  and 
polished,  the  upper  end  scalloped,  and  its  natural  cavity  enlarged. 
This  specimen  accompanied  a  skeleton  in  the  great  mound.  The  draw- 
ing illustrates  the  back  of  the  carving  (Fig.  20).     An  analysis  of  the 


Fig.  59. 
Carving  In- 
cised on   Bone 
from  Mound  25. 


Bone  Carvings  161 

complete  design  appears  in  Fig.  21.  Unfortunately  the  bone  was 
broken,  and  a  few  pieces  were  not  recovered.  A  small  part  of  the 
design,  the  lower  central  portion,  could  not  be  wholly  restored.    The 


Fig.  60. 
Bird's  Head  Carved  from  Bone. 


restored  part  is  indicated  by  broken  lines.  It  is  difficult,  at  first,  to 
discover  any  intelligible  design  in  this  medley  of  lines.  A  strange  mixture 
of  human  and  animal  faces  appears  in  company  with  circles,  ovals,  and 


Fig.  61. 
Bird's  Head,  Probably  a  Raven,  with  a.  Pearl  Inserted  in  the  Eye. 

other  forms.  A  careful  study  of  the  carving,  aided  by  tracings  and  bv 
comparison  with  similar  objects  from  the  great  mound,  shows  that  an 
elaborate  mask,  or  a  combination  of  masks,  is  represented.    The  mask 


1 62 


Hopewell  Mound  Group 


proper  is  surmounted  by  a  pair  of  antlers,  in  form  very  much  like  the 
copper  antler,  illustrated  in  Plate  XLIX,  which  was  probably  a  part 
of  a  similar  mask. 

The  two  copper  head-dresses  found  in  the  large  mound  have  already 
been  mentioned.  The  other  one,  with  the  horns  just  sprouting,  or  in 
the  velvet,  is  shown  in  Plate  LXXI.    Willoughby  states,  "Both  of  these 


Fig.  62. 
Decorated  Bones  from  Altar  2. 


forms  are  indicated  in  the  incised  carvings  shown  in  Figs.  20  and  21. 
These  tracings  show  that  the  carving  is  not  merely  a  mixture  of 
meaningless  lines,  but  is  a  combination  of  several  heads  drawn  within 
a  prescribed  limit,  so  arranged  that  the  outline  of  one  face  forms  parts 
of  other  heads  or  faces." 

Many  incised  carvings  of  the  same  character  of  those  recovered  were 


Bone  Carvings  163 

placed  on  the  altars  of  Mound  25.  None  of  these  can  be  restored,  which 
is  unfortunate;  for,  if  we  had  them  restored,  we  could  form  much  better 
and  more  complete  conclusions  concerning  these  people. 

Fig.  66  shows  one  of  the  largest  carvings  of  human  figures,  the  face 
being  partly  destroyed  by  contact  with  a  mass  of  copper.  It  is  ebony 
black  from  the  fire.  Willoughby  thinks  that  this  was  the  head  of  a 
baton,  but  the  lower  part  is  missing.  There  appears  to  be  a  head-dress 
of  some  sort,  and  it  is  interesting  that  the  human  heads  found  show 
several  different  methods  of  hair-dressing.  Fig.  67  shows  another  head, 
probably  also  from  a  baton.  The  top  of  the  head  is  apparently  covered 
with  a  flat  object.  The  ear  is  perforated  in  four  places,  probably  for 
the  attachment  of  ornaments.    At  the  back  of  the  head  is  a  perforation 


Fig.  630. 
Tracing  of  a  Bird's  Head  on  Bone. 

less  than  3  mm  in  diameter  in  which  a  plug  of  bone  or  antler  is  inserted. 
Some  of  the  heads  illustrated  by  Squier  and  Davis  have  a  similar 
perforation. 

In  regard  to  Fig.  68,  Willoughby  observes,  "The  most  noteworthy 
striking  carving  of  the  human  figure  recovered  during  the  exploration  is 
wrought  from  ivory,  and  like  all  of  the  ivory  (fossil  mammoth  ivory) 
carvings  from  the  altars,  is  very  badly  injured  by  the  heat.  A  portion 
of  the  face  is  missing,  the  arms  and  other  parts  of  the  body  are  broken 
and  the  lower  extremity  of  the  sculpture  destroyed.  A  convolute 
tattoo  mark  appears  upon  the  cheek.  An  incised  line  across  the  upper 
part  of  the  forehead  marks  the  hair  line,  or  indicates  the  front  edge  of 
a  head-dress.  Back  of  this  line  are  two  ear-like  ornaments,  one  of 
which  has  been  broken.  An  appendage  analogous  to  the  same  feature 
in  Fig.  67  projects  from  the  back  of  the  head.  This  is  also  broken. 
The  hair  is  gathered  into  a  large  chignon,  and  is  apparently  confined 
in  a  net.    The  meshes  of  the  net  seem  to  be  represented  by  incised  lines. 


164 


Hopewell  Mound  Group 


From  the  bottom  of  the  chignon,  and  extending  downward  along  the 
back,  is  a  nearly  flat  projection  which  widens  as  it  descends,  and  upon 
this  falls  a  cue-like  object  with  its  lower  end  missing.  The  lower  lobe 
of  the  ear  is  much  distended  by  the  insertion  of  a  long  curved  ornament, 
evidently  of  the  same  form  and  material  as  the  ear-pendants  obtained 
from  each  side  of  the  neck  of  a  skeleton  in  the  large  mound  (Fig.  69). 
A  scarf -like  object  hangs  from  the  neck  with  its  lower  end  broken.  Upon 
the  uninjured  portion  is  delineated  a  zigzag  line;  upon  either  side  are 
two  dots;  below  are  two  horizontal  lines,  and  between  these  lines  are 
three  additional  dots  arranged  in  a  row." 


Fig.  636. 
Both   Sides  of  the  Engraved  Bone. 


While  many  artifacts  have  been  recovered  from  the  Ohio  mounds, 
models  or  representations  of  human  figures  are  few.  Therefore,  those 
of  terracotta  from  the  Turner  group,  together  with  the  ones  illustrated 
above  from  the  Hopewell  group,  give  us  some  little  insight  into  the 
mode  of  dress,  method  of  wearing  the  hair,  and  the  use  of  certain 
ornaments  among  the  ancient  people  of  that  region.  The  lines  on  all 
the  bone  objects  are  well  executed.  This  is  particularly  true  of  the 
many  fragments  recovered  from  the  site  of  Mound  1,  and  it  is  most 
unfortunate  that  the  many  bone  tubes  evidently  placed  in  it  were 
destroyed.    The  numbers  of  effigies  and  bone  tracings  found  lead  us  to 


Bone  Carvings,  Pottery 


165 


conclude  that  the  Hopewell  people  possessed  many  of  these  artistically 
carved  objects. 

Comparisons  might  be  drawn  between  the  Hopewell  design  and  some 
of  the  carvings  found  in  Florida  and  on  the  Northwest  Coast.  One  of 
the  interesting  features,  however,  is  the  parallel  between  many  of  these 
carvings,  containing  the  square  and  circle,  and  the  earthworks  of  the 
Ohio  Valley.     It  has  been  suggested  by  many  writers  that  the  works 


Fig.  64. 
A  Drawing  of  an  Ocelot  upon  Bone. 


were  of  a  religious  or  symbolic  character,  and  certainly  their  form  gave 
little  protection  to  the  villages  enclosed.  Sufficient  numbers  of  carvings 
have  been  obtained  from  the  Turner,  Hopewell,  and  other  groups  to 
indicate  quite  clearly  that,  while  many  of  these  designs  represent  con- 
ventionalized human  beings  or  animals,  others  indicate  the  form  of  the 
earthworks  or  enclosures  themselves. 

Pottery. — Pottery    was    not    common    in    the    Hopewell    group, 


1 66  Hopewell  Mound  Group 

although  a  number  of  fragments  were  found  on  the  village  site  and 
scattered  through  the  mounds.  The  amount  recovered  is  not  to  be  com- 
pared with  that  from  the  Baum  site,  ten  miles  distant,  or  from  sites  of 
the  Fort  Ancient  culture.  We  cannot  determine  from  the  field  evidence 
whether  the  utensils  of  the  Hopewell  people  were  made  from  wood, 
basketry,  etc.,  but  they  seem  not  to  have  used  pottery  as  extensively 
as  the  other  tribes  of  the  Ohio  Valley.  We  have  not  sufficient  Hopewell 
pottery  to  positively  determine  by  what  tribe  it  was  made,  but  such  as 
I  have  seen  seems  to  indicate  that  it  is  early  Algonkin.  The  pottery 
jars  found  by  Squier  and  Davis  in  other  mounds  do  not  appear  to  be  of 


"""•""-  ■*■•-••■!"  •c"-»  j,%*j /.^.v  :f&.-:X&--i-'.--i.'~>'J:i  ^^rv^-.^Xr.y^y^^X^'^--- 

Fig.   6j. 
Effigy  of  a  Bird   Carved  from  Bone  from  Altar  2. 

Madisonville  or  Fort  Ancient  type.  The  Hopewell  pottery  is  certainly 
not  southern,  and  none  of  the  southern  forms  of  bottles,  effigies,  etc., 
are  found  in  the  Scioto  Valley.  This  is  significant  as  indicating  that 
although  the  Hopewell  people  obtained  flint,  mica,  sharks'  teeth,  and 
ocean  shells  from  the  south,  their  art  was  not  effected  by  the  prevailing 
southern  forms. 

An  ordinary  cooking-pot  was  found  in  the  village  site.  Restored,  it 
is  about  14  cm  in  height  and  13  cm  across  the  top  in  diameter.  .It  is 
the  ordinary  village  site  type  and  carries  no  significance.  Willoughby 
states  that  "fragments  of  a  number  of  pottery  vases  were  taken  from 
Altar  1.  Enough  pieces  were  found  of  one  to  show  the  original  form 
(Fig.  70) .  The  walls  of  this  vessel  have  a  nearly  uniform  thickness  of  a 
little  more  than  6  mm.  The  clay  had  been  mixed  with  pounded  quartz. 
The  bottom  is  slightly  rounded,  and  the  upper  part  of  the  rim  is  orna- 
mented by  notches.  For  a  depth  of  24  mm  the  outer  edge  of  the  rim  is 
ornamented  with  parallel  incised  lines,  and  these  are  crossed  at  intervals 
by  a  group  of  other  lines  drawn  at  right  angles  with  the  first.  Beneath 
this  band  is  a  single  row  of  depressions  encircling  the  vase,  probably 


Pottery 


167 


made  by  pressing  the  end  of  a  small  twig  into  the  soft  clay.  Less  than 
an  inch  below,  three  shallow  grooves,  about  5  mm  wide,  encircle  the 
pot,  and  under  these  are  the  zigzag  lines  found  so  often  in  the  archaic 
Algonquian  pottery  of  New  England. 
The  unornamented  portion  of  the  exterior 
shows  careful  smoothing.  The  height  of 
this  vase  is  22  cm,  and  the  rim  is  21  cm 
in  diameter.  Fragments  of  two  other 
vessels  were  taken  from  this  altar,  but 
too  few  to  restore  the  vases.  Judging 
from  portions  of  the  rims,  one  was  about 
20.5  cm  in  diameter  at  the  top,  and  was 
very  rudely  made,  with  no  attempt  at 
decoration,  of  the  ordinary  round-bottom 
form.  Some  of  the  fragments  had  indis- 
tinct cord-markings.  A  third  vessel  was 
somewhat  smaller.  The  curvature  of  the 
rim  fragments  would  indicate  a  vessel 
with  a  diameter  of  about  15.5  cm  at  the 
opening,  with  walls  averaging  less  than 
6  mm  in  thickness.  With  the  exception 
of  a  space  of  3  cm  below  the  rim,  the 
fragments  were  thickly  covered  with 
marks  of  twisted  fibre  cords.  In  these 
pots  the  clay  had  been  tempered  with 
powdered  stone." 

The  northernmost  place  in  which  a 
cemetery  containing  typical  middle  Mis- 
sissippi Valley  pottery  was  found,  is  that 
at  the  mouth  of  the  Wabash  River, 
southern  Indiana,  where  a  survey  con- 
ducted by  the  Phillips  Academy  found 
about  a  hundred  jars,  bottles,  and  bowls.1 

Objects  of  Burned  Clay.  —  Eight 
objects  of  burned  clay  are  shown  in  Fig. 
71;  a  is  probably  a  form  on  which 
sheet  copper  for  ear-busks  was  worked. 
The  groove  was  made  by  pressing  a  thin,  straight  shaft  of  some 
sort    into    the    clay    before    baking,    and    extends    about    half-way 


Fig.  66. 

Human   Effigy   in 

Antler  from  Altar   i. 


^Bulletin  of  the,  Phillips  Academy,  No.  3,  pp.  72 — 86. 


1 68 


Hopewell  Mound  Group 


through.  Fig.  71  b  is  a  similar,  but  small  form,  with  a  shallow  groove 
and  flat  base.  Fig.  71  c  is  still  smaller;  and  the  groove,  which  appears 
to  have  been  gouged  out,  does  not  run  clear  across.  Its  ungrooved 
side  is  slightly  convex.  Fig.  71  d  and  e  have  a  flat  base  and  cone- 
shaped  top.  Fig.  71  /  is  perforated,  and  is  probably  a  large  bead, 
although  it  could  have  been  used  as  a  form  to  work  copper  on.  The  per- 
foration is  larger  at  one  end  than  the  other  as  though  a  bone  awl  had  been 


Fig.  67. 
Human  Effigy  in  Antler  from  Altar 


pushed  through  it,  while  the  clay  was  still  soft.  Fig.  71  g  is  an  ordinary 
globular  bead,  and  h  is  a  flattened  bead.  All  the  objects  are  hard  burned 
and  brick-like  in  solidity.  Traces  of  copper  still  adhere  to  some  of  them. 
Textiles. — Both  in  the  altars  and  with  burials,  there  were  numerous 
traces  of  textiles  which  had  been  preserved  either  by  charring  or  by 
contact  with  copper  or  meteoric  iron.  From  these  we  may  gain  a  slight 
clew  to  the  character  of  the  garments  worn  by  the  ancient  people. 


Objects  of  Burned  Ct.ay  and  Textiles 


169 


Skeleton  248  had  been  dressed  in  a  skirt  of  finely  woven  cloth  extending 
from  the  waist  to  the  knees,  to  which  had  been  sewn  pearls,  bears'- 
teeth,  and  other  ornaments.  Plate  LXXXI  shows  a  copper  plate  which 
is  entirely  covered  with  imprints  of  cloth.  Some  of  the  threads  and 
fibres  are  still  adhering.  Fig.  72  illustrates  various  examples  of  textiles. 
Those  in  a-e  inclusive  represent  the  fabric  in  approximately  actual 
size.  The  left-hand  drawings  show  the  details  of  the  weaving  consider- 
ably enlarged.  The  specimens  a,  b,  g,  h,  and  i,  are  all  twine-woven. 
In  a  the  method  of  holding  the  warps  in  alternating  pairs  produces  a 
lattice-like  open-work  effect.     In  g  and  h  an  open  texture  is  achieved 


Fig.  68. 
Human  Effigy  Carved  from  Ivory  or  Shell  from  One  of  the  Altars. 


by  a  relatively  wide  spacing  of  the  warps.  The  "watered"  appearance 
of  i  is  due,  as  is  brought  out  in  the  illustration,  to  a  skilful  weaving  of 
warps  during  the  twining  process;  c  is  twilled,  the  order  being  over  one 
and  under  two;  /  is  a  plain  close  weave  with  primitive  re-entering 
selvage,  which  lacks  an  edge  cord;  b  and  e  are  fine  examples  of  coiled 
netting. 

Willoughby  has  made  a  stud}*-  of  the  weaving  of  the  Hopewell  people. 
Concerning  one  fragment  from  Altar  2  he  remarks,  "Judging  from  the 
finished  upper  edge,  it  would  seem  that,  in  weaving,  the  upright  lines 
of  the  warp  were  carried  back  and  forth  in  pairs,  the  loops  at  each  end 


170 


Hopewell  Mound  Group 


passing  around  pins  set  at  equal  intervals.  By  this  method,  two  con- 
tinuous threads  of  sufficient  length  would  constitute  the  warp,  and  the 
loops  at  each  end  would  form  the  ornamental  edge  shown  in  the  draw- 
ings." 

Comparing  the  Hopewell  cloth  with  that  from  other  mounds,  but 
more  particularly  with  the  few  examples  of  prehistoric  cloth  we  have, 
and  with  similar  cloth  in  use  among  the  historic 
Indians,  the  suggestion  has  been  made  that  for  the 
coarser  grades  the  bark  of  the  cedar,  willow,  or  other 
trees  was  used.  For  the  finer  varieties  they  may 
have  used  milkweed  or  nettle,  or  possibly  the  fibres 
of  the  dogbane.  I  do  not  believe  that  cotton  cloth 
was  used  in  the  Scioto  Valley. 

Wooden  Objects. — As  copper  was  melted,  bone 
greatly  damaged,  and  shell  destroyed  by  the  heat 
of  the  altar  fires,  wooden  objects  were  completely 
destroyed.  Carbonized  fragments  of  wooden  bowls 
were  found  in  both  altars,  and  a  careful  examination 
of  these  indicates  that  they  were  carved  with  designs 
similar  to  those  upon  the  engraved  bones.  There 
were  also  a  few  fragments  of  wooden  rings,  very 
much  like  the  stone  rings. 

The  wood  used  was  probably  maple  or  cherry, 
but  identification  is  difficult,  as  the  grain  is  almost 
destroyed.  One  cannot  doubt  that  the  Hopewell 
people  made  use  of  wood  even  more  freely  than  of 
copper,  bone,  or  shell;  and  it  is  unfortunate  that 
none  of  their  wooden  utensils  or  artifacts  have 
survived. 

Seeds. — Several  hundred  small  seeds,  many  of 
which  had  been  perforated  as  if  for  use  as  beads, 
were  found  in  a  matrix  of  charred  bone  and  melted 
copper.  It  is  hard  to  understand  why  they  were 
not  consumed  by  the  heat  of  the  fire. 


rw 


$ 


H\! 


®. 


Fig.  69. 

Shell  Ornament 

Found  with 

Skeleton  278. 


We  are  placed  at  a  disadvantage  since  our  studies  of  prehistoric 
artifacts  are  confined  to  those  of  metal,  stone,  clay  or  bone,  including 
few  shells.  Wood  was  much  more  easily  workable.  We  should  not 
conclude  that  the  Hopewell  people's  art  was  confined  to  objects 
wrought  from  refractory  materials.  Many  fine  examples  of  primitive 
wood  carving  doubtless  existed. 


Pottery 


171 


Fig.  70. 
Restored  Pottery  Vase  from  Altar   1. 


Fig.  71. 
Clay  Buttons  or  Beads  from  Mound  25. 


172 


Hopewell  Mound  Group 


%LJft-a$.jJ$t 


<*& 


a, 


S5? 

3:0 


Wd"  'i^frtth*  VHflbiiM 


d 


Fig.  72. 
Fragments  of  Textiles  from  Hopewell  Mounds. 


CONCLUSIONS 

Since  the  Hopewell  explorations,  extensive  researches  have  been 
carried  on  among  the  mound  groups  in  the  Mississippi  Valley  and  the 
South.  Although  several  archaeologists  have  lamented  the  delay  in  the 
Hopewell  publication,  there  is  this  to  be  said  in  favor  of  a  long-deferred 
report.  We  are  now  able  to  make  comparisons  between  the  Hopewell 
and  other  mound  cultures,  whereas,  had  this  report  been  published 
shortly  after  the  end  of  the  Columbian  Exposition,  observations  would 
naturally  have  been  limited  to  Madisonville,  the  Turner  group,  and 
Fort  Ancient.1  Practically  every  one  agrees  with  reference  to  the  two 
sharply  defined  cultures  of  southern  Ohio,  which  are  now  designated  as 
the  Fort  Ancient  and  Hopewell  cultures.  An  admirable  study  of  these 
was  published  by  H.  C.  Shetrone.1  In  addition  to  these  I  think  we 
should  recognize  a  third,  the  glacial-kame  culture.  This  may  be  closely 
related  to  the  Fort  Ancient  culture,  yet  insufficient  work  has  been  done 
to  positively  identify  it.  It  is  based  upon  numerous  interments  found 
in  gravel  hills  of  glacial  formation,  common  in  central  and  southern 
Ohio.  Most  of  the  artifacts  found  with  these  seem  somewhat  different 
from  those  of  the  Fort  Ancient  culture.  None  of  the  gravel  knolls  near 
the  Hopewell  group  contained  burials,  but  it  might  be  well  for  some  one 
to  extend  researches  in  this  direction  to  points  several  miles  distant 
from  it. 

Though  the  length  and  breadth  of  the  State  of  Ohio  the  Fort  Ancient 
culture  seems  to  have  obtained.  In  fact,  it  surrounded  the  Hopewell 
culture.  The  latter  was  highly  developed  locally  in  the  various  sites, 
where  the  great  earthworks  of  the  valleys  are  situated,  but  was  compact 
or  concentrated,  while  the  Fort  Ancient  culture  was  widely  distributed. 
All  the  great  groups  belonging  to  this  culture  are  within  a  hundred 
miles  of  Hopewell.  The  great  works  at  Newark  are  at  about  this  dis- 
tance by  Indian  trail.  All  the  characteristic  Scioto  Valley  enclosures: 
Mound  City,  High  Banks,  Liberty,  Circleville,  etc.,  are  from  eight  to 
twenty-five  miles  away.  Runners  could  reach  most  of  them  in  one  and 
a  half  to  five  hours  time,  and  even  the  most  distant  in  two  days. 

Attention  is  called  to  the  very  able  report  recently  published  by  Hooton  and 
Willougiibv,  Indian  Village  Site  and  Cemetery  near  Madisonville,  Ohio  (Papers 
of  the  Peabody  Museum  of  American  Archaeology  and  Ethnology,  Harvard  University, 
Vol.  VIII,  No.  I,  Cambridge,  1920). 

1  American  Anthropologist,  1920,  p.  144. 

173 


174  Hopewell  Mound  Group 

Mound  city,  where  Squier  and  Davis  made  their  famous  discovery 
of  two  hundred  pipes  is  only  eight  miles  east  of  Hopewell  by  trail. 

Since  this  report  was  written,  Mills  has  examined  the  remaining 
tumuli.  His  observations  are  not  yet  published,  but  it  is  known  that  he 
recovered  a  wealth  of  material  much  of  which  was  an  exact  duplicate  of 
the  Hopewell  finds.  He  also  found  forms  in  copper  not  discovered 
elsewhere.  Notable  among  these  are  human  heads  and  double-headed 
eagles.  We  found  in  the  Hopewell  altars  some  small  mushroom-shaped 
objects  of  copper;  and  several,  which  were  larger  and  with  longer  stems, 
were  discovered  by  Mills  at  Mound  City.  Mills  concludes  that  they 
portray  the  deadly  Amanita,  and  we  concur  with  him  in  this  theory. 

Whether  all  the  villages  of  the  Hopewell  culture  grouped  in  Ross 
County,  where  most  of  them  are  located,  were  inhabited  at  the  same 
time,  is  not  positively  known,  but  I  believe  that  they  were.  Their 
inhabitants  were  probably  of  the  same  stock,  speaking  a  common 
language,  as  their  art -forms  are  identical.  I  was  formerly  under  the 
impression  that  the  famous  Serpent  Mound  did  not  belong  to  the  Hope- 
well culture,  but  apparently  it  does,  and  my  former  statement  to  the 
effect  that  its  builders  are  connected  with  the  Fort  Ancient  culture 
may  be  incorrect. 

Whether  the  Hopewell  people  were  exterminated  by  the  Iroquois 
previous  to  the  coming  of  the  French  into  Canada,  and  were  the  people 
variously  mentioned  in  Leni  Lenape  and  other  traditions  as  the  Snake 
people  or  "earthwork  people,"  is  not  positively  known,  but  I  believe 
that  they  were.  Apparently  they  asserted  great  influence,  and  dom- 
inated aboriginal  life  in  southern  Ohio.  While  there  is  no  positive 
evidence  that  they  were  at  war  with  the  Fort  Ancient  culture  people, 
it  is  not  beyond  the  bounds  of  probability. 

I  do  not  believe  that  the  Hopewell  people  were  in  existence,  when 
certain  mound-building  tribes  of  the  south  were  seen  by  La  Salle  and 
Tonty.  So  far  as  it  is  possible  to  reconstruct  Hopewell  life,  it  would 
appear  to  have  been  more  or  less  parallel  to  that  of  one  of  these  tribes. 
Tonty  speaks  of  large  dwellings  placed  in  regular  order  around  an  open 
area,  and  he  refers  to  treasures,  such  as  pearls  and  copper  eagles.  In 
the  centre  of  a  large  structure  he  observed  an  ocean  shell  and  other 
things  of  interest.  It  is  my  opinion  that  the  dwellings  were  grouped 
about  a  common  square  at  Hopewell,  although  this  cannot  be  positively 
determined.  The  soil  has  been  continually  cultivated  for  more  than  a 
century ;  and  traces  of  these  dwellings,  as  well  as  of  sun-dried  bricks  (if 
such  were  used),  have  long  since  disappeared.  Squier  and  Davis  men- 
tion remains  of  burnt  clay  or  sun-dried  bricks  in  connection  with  some 


3   JSZi 

Conclusions  175 

of  the  earthwork ;  and  it  is  quite  likely  that  the  walls  of  certain  of  the 
squares,  octagons,  and  circles  were  faced  with  small  masses  of  dried  clay. 

Undoubtedly  there  were  surface  indications  to  be  observed  in 
Atwater's  time  which  have  long  since  disappeared.  He  speaks  of 
strange  things  which  were  observed  on  the  surface  of  the  enclosures 
about  the  year  1800,  when  they  were  first  brought  under  cultivation. 
Whether  he  means  fire-places,  or  primitive  shrines,  or  accumulations  of 
stone,  we  do  not  know.    It  is  unfortunate  that  he  was  not  more  specific. 

The  length  of  occupation  of  the  Hopewell  site  is  unknown.  It  has 
always  been  my  impression  that  the  culture  developed  there  during  a 
number  of  generations.  I  do  not  believe  that  there  was  a  large  popula- 
tion, but  rather  a  village  of  closely  related  clans,  fratries  or  families, 
which  occupied  the  site  for  a  considerable  time.  The  length  of  occupa- 
tion of  the  Hopewell  site  naturally  cannot  be  determined.  It  might 
have  been  sometime  between  the  years  1400  and  1500.  I  have  always 
been  inclined  to  think  that  it  was  prior  to  1550,  but  am  not  disposed 
to  place  the  date  before  the  year  1400.  It  was  naturally  abandoned 
before  the  French  and  English  explorations,  otherwise  such  an  important 
site  would  have  been  visited  by  Europeans.  Taking  into  account  the 
way  Indians  lived,  there  was  probably  room  within  the  walls  for  1500 
to  2000  persons. 

The  question  has  been  asked  whether  it  is  possible  to  make  a  dis- 
tinction between  the  dates  of  the  burials  in  different  mounds.  This 
cannot  be  done,  except  in  the  case  of  intrusive  burials.  The  central 
burials  in  each  case  were  probably  the  oldest,  others  being  added  on  the 
base  line,  as  the  mound  was  extended.  The  exploration  of  Mound  25 
indicates  that  it  was  sometime,  before  this  structure  reached  its  greatest 
dimensions,  probably  two  or  three  generations,  and  possibly  three  or 
four. 

It  is  generally  supposed  that  the  Hopewell  people  were  brachy- 
cephalic.  This  cannot  be  determined  positively  until  accurate 
measurements  are  made.  Dr.  H.  T.  Cresson  advanced  a  statement 
to  that  effect,  but  his  observations  were  based  upon  a  hasty  field  exam- 
ination. He  pointed  out  to  us,  however,  a  few  crania  which,  as  any 
observer  could  see,  were  longer  than  the  prevailing  short  types.  With 
these  long-headed  burials  there  were  no  copper  ornaments,  pipes,  or 
other  objects  of  value.  From  our  field  observations  it  seems  probable 
that  these  long-headed  people  were  slaves  or  enemies,  and  were  buried 
without  honor.  Careful  tabulation  of  the  crania  and  a  checking  up  of 
the  objects  found  with  each  might  settle  this  point. 

Squier  and  Davis  worked  for  years  in  southern  Ohio,  and  it  now 


176  Hopewell  Mound  Group 

appears  that  they  were  right  in  their  contention  that  the  life  and 
customs  of  the  Hopewell  culture  people  were  quite  different  from  those 
of  the  later  Indians.  At  this  time  we  may  not  subscribe  to  their  enthu- 
siastic claim  that  it  was  a  civilization,  but  we  must  accord  them  a  full 
meed  of  praise;  for  more  than  seventy-five  years  ago  they  discerned 
that  the  culture  was  peculiar  and  distinctive.  When  describing  the 
various  art-objects  found,  attention  was  called  to  the  skill  and  art- 
sense  evinced  in  their  manufacture.  Some  of  them  seem  beyond  the 
ability  of  a  barbaric  people.  Some  of  the  quartz  crystals,  for  instance, 
are  perforated  with  holes  a  scant  millimeter  in  diameter.  M'cGuire  was 
able  to  drill  in  stone  and  metal  with  aboriginal  tools,  and  his  observations 
are  of  great  value;  but  I  doubt  his  ability  to  drill  quartz  crystals. 

It  is  not  necessary  in  these  pages  to  enter  into  a  discussion  of  cosmic 
symbols,  }.ret  there  is  abundant  material  for  such  study  in  both  the 
Hopewell  and  other  mound  collections.  Many  of  the  early  writers  on 
American  archaeology  thought  that  works  of  the  type  described  on  these 
pages  were  erected  for  religious  purposes.  One  author  suggested  that 
within  the  square  enclosure  a  certain  clan  resided,  or  perhaps  the  clan 
elders,  and  that  another  clan  lived  within  the  large  circle.  Several 
writers  have  observed  that  the  Hopewell  walls,  mounting  as  they  do 
from  one  terrace  to  another,  did  not  afford  protection  against  an  assault 
by  enemies.  Other  enclosures  are  so  constructed  as  to  give  little  pro- 
tection to  the  village  within.  In  the  light  of  modern  explorations  it 
seems  safe  to  assume  a  religious  character  for  most  of  these  squares, 
circles,  and  geometric  figures.  It  is  difficult  for  us  to  always  grasp  the 
Indian's  point  of  view,  but  it  seems  to,  me  that  the  people  who  built 
the  Hopewell,  Turner,  Liberty,  Mound  City,  and  other  groups  depended 
upon  the  potency  of  their  "medicine,"  quite  as  much  as  on  the  strength 
of  their  walls  or  the  courage  of  their  warriors.  In  brief,  they  erected 
around  their  village  clan  groups  or  sacred  buildings,  these  squares, 
circles,  and  other  combinations,  all  of  which  were  suggested  by  their 
religious  beliefs. 

There  is  no  evidence  that  the  Hopewell  people  had  domestic  animals, 
and  no  bones  of  the  prehistoric  dog  were  found  in  the  village  site. 

The  most  interesting  question,  that  with  reference  to  the  origin  of 
the  Hopewell  people,  cannot  be  answered.  We  cannot  at  present  assign 
to  them  positive  classification  under  the  Algonkin;  yet  their  pottery 
and  other  artifacts  seem  to  indicate  that  they  were  quite  likely  of  that 
stock.  At  one  time  I  was  of  the  opinion  that  these  Indians  came  from 
the  south  and  moved  northward.  I  now  believe  that  after  their  defeat 
by  the  Iroquois  the  remnant  of  them  moved  to  the  South,  and  mingled 


Conclusions  177 

with  the  Indians  of  the  Tennessee  or  Cumberland  Valleys.  This  belief 
is  based  on  the  following  observations:  Had  the  Hopewell  people 
come  from  the  south,  they  would  probably  have  brought  with  them  a 
knowledge  of  the  construction  of  stone  graves,  and  as  limestone  slabs 
are  common  in  Paint  Creek,  some  of  the  burials  would  have  been  made 
in  these  stone  coffins.  Also,  they  would  have  brought  with  them  knowl- 
edge of  southern  pottery,  which  is  superior  to  northern  pottery,  and  is 
of  different  form.  Further,  they  would  have  introduced  the  southern 
form  of  tubular  pipe,  as  well  as  some  of  the  small  clay  and  stone  disks 
so  common  in  Tennessee  and  Kentucky.  Shell  disks  or  tablets  would 
also  have  been  in  evidence.  Several  of  the  long,  highly-specialized 
"swords"  or  flint  maces,  of  which  numbers  have  been  discovered  in  the 
burial  places  of  Tennessee  and  Kentucky,  would  undoubtedly  have 
been  present  at  Hopewell.  None  of  these  things  were  found.  The 
Hopewell  pottery  is  distinctively  northern,  not  southern.  In  the  mounds 
and  graves  of  Kentucky  and  Tennessee,  we  find  pipes  similar  to  the 
Scioto  Valley  forms  and  other  objects,  indicating  that  some  people 
came  in  who  were  familiar  with  the  northern  art,  or  that  such  art- 
objects  were  obtained  by  exchange.  It  will  be  immediately  suggested  by 
students  that  the  presence  of  mica,  sharks'-teeth,  and  ocean  shells 
indicate  southern  migration  or  origin.  I  think  not,  but,  on  the  contrary, 
am  convinced  that  these  foreign  objects  came  in  by  exchange  or  by 
traders,  who  travelled  considerable  distances. 

The  reports  covering  Mills'  extensive  and  important  explorations 
in  the  State  of  Ohio  clearly  indicate  that  the  culture  is  northern  rather 
than  southern;  yet,  that  a  great  deal  of  material  was  brought  in  from  the 
south.  In  brief,  the  Hopewell  culture  was  somewhat  affected  by  a 
knowledge  of  the  south,  whereas  the  mound  groups  of  the  south  do 
not  appear  to  have  been  influenced  by  knowledge  of  the  culture  of  the 
north.  There  were  more  southern  objects  in  northern  mounds  than 
northern -made  artifacts  in  southern  mounds. 

During  September-October,  192 1,  and  March-April,  1922,  I  made 
preliminary  inspection  of  the  Cahokia  mounds  near  East  St.  Louis, 
Illinois.  A  number  of  these  tumuli  were  explored.  Fifty-two  skeletons 
and  numerous  artifacts  were  recovered  during  the  course  of  exploration 
in  the  mounds,  villages-sites,  and  cemeteries.  Researches  have  not 
progressed  to  a  sufficient  extent  to  draw  definite  conclusions,  but  it 
appears  that  Cahokia  is  the  largest  group  of  mounds  indicating  dominant 
southern  culture  north  of  the  Ohio  river.  That  is,  at  no  other  point 
in  the  north  is  southern  culture  so  evident.  An  examination  of  six  or 
eight  of  the  mounds,  two  of  which  were  of  considerable  size,  would 


178  Hopewell  Mound  Group 

indicate  that  the  Cahokia  people  were  quite  different  from  the  builders 
of  the  Hopewell  group.  There  are  some  indications  of  a  mingling  of 
northern  and  southern  cultures,  yet  it  is  premature  to  make  the  state- 
ment positively. 

Mound  25,  as  seen  by  Atwater,  and  Squier  and  Davis,  was  the 
nearest  approach  to  the  pyramid  type  that  existed  in  the  State  of  Ohio ; 
yet  it  is  scarcely  probable  that  its  form  was  due  to  a  knowledge  of  the 
southern  pyramids,  as  is  evinced  in  the  case  of  the  Cahokia  pyramids. 

Hopewell  is  a  very  highly  developed  local  culture,  very  much 
specialized  and  confined  to  an  area  approximately  150  by  125  miles 
in  extent.  Notwithstanding  the  fact  that  ceramic  art  was  more  highly 
developed  in  the  south,  it  is  safe  to  assume  that  in  copper,  quartz 
crystal,  bone  and  pipe  effigies  the  Hopewell  people  were  not  surpassed 
and  seldom  equalled  by  any  other  tribe  of  Indians,  either  ancient  or 
modern,  within  the  area  embraced  by  the  United  States. 

It  is  my  belief  that  Hopewell  itself  was  the  metropolis  of  this  ancient 
people,  where  resided  the  chief  traders  or  merchants,  as  well  as  the 
most  skilled  artisans. 


, [ 

J 

/ 

c 

3 

-^ 

l\ 

-J 

5  2  < 

/V 

^\" 

<? 

&• 

1       ^ 

m; 

a 

3        J 

i»                 m 

L 

3 

!) 

t 

w 

1 

\ 

nrfuS'     „. 

o 

\ 

\  1 

''sf 

r 

0H 

A 

fc 

' 

1 

_^___^ , 

V 

FIELD   MUSEUM   OF   NATURAL    HISTORY. 


ANTHROPOLOGY,  VOL.  VI,  PL.  XLVI. 


PLAN   OF    MOUND  23   (pp.  97,  98). 


5 


(h 


...v^'0o%Vo°oVoos. 


°o  °  «o   oo  o  °  o  o  O    o  ono 
i  o  o  o  o    0  ( 


±1 


■*".'?*  y  ■  '» 


FIELD    MUSEUM   OF   NATURAL    HISTORY. 


ANTHROPOLOGY,  VOL.   VI,  PL.   LI. 


1-3,   ADZE   BLADES;     4-8,  COPPER  AXES   (p.  11 7-. 


FIELD    MUSEUM   OF   NATURAL    HISTORY. 


ANTHROPOLOGY,  VOL    VI,  PL.  Lll. 


AXE  FROM    DEPOSIT  OVER   SKELETONS  260  AND  261    (p.  117). 


W.rM 


'&■■'$&?' 


FIELD   MUSEUM   OF  NATURAL    HISTORY. 


ANTHROPOLOGY,  VOL.  VI,   PL.   LV. 


COPPER   PLATES  (p.  119'.. 


B^ 


FIELD   MUSEUM   OF  NATURAL    HISTORY. 


ANTHROPOLOGY,  VOL.  VI,  PL.  LVII. 


SPECIALIZED   EAR-ORNAMENTS:     1-2,  SHOWING   REPOUSSE  WORK;     3,  WITH   STRINGS 
AROUND  THE  CENTRE  (p.  122). 


FIELD   MUSEUM   OF  NATURAL    HISTORY. 


ANTHROPOLOGY,  VOL.  VI,  PL.   LIXA. 


ANKLETS  OR   BRACELETS  (p.  123). 


FIELD   MUSEUM  OF  NATURAL   HISTORY. 


ANTHROPOLOGY,  VOL.  VI,  PL.  LIXb. 


ANKLETS  OR   BRACELETS  (p.  123). 


FIELD   MUSEUM   OF  NATURAL    HISTORY. 


ANTHROPOLOGY,  VOL.  VI,  PL.  LX. 


COPPER  DISKS  (p.  123). 


FIELD    MUSEUM   OF   NATURAL    HISTORY. 


ANTHROPOLOGY,  VOL.  VI,  PL.  LXI. 


J§  m  ^^^  H*$^8 


1-4,    WINGED   BUTTONS  OF  COPPER;     --9,  UNKNOWN   FORMS   IN  COPPER  (p.  124). 


FIELD   MUSEUM   OF  NATURAL    HISTORY. 


ANTHROPOLOGY,  VOL.  VI,  PL.  LXII. 


I,  UNKNOWN   DESIGN   IN   COPPER;     2,   PROBABLY  SERPENT  HEAD   IN  COPPER  (p.  124). 


FIELD   MUSEUM  OF  NATURAL   HISTORY. 


ANTHROPOLOGY,  VOL.  VI,  PL.  LXIII. 


DESIGNS   IN   COPPER  PROBABLY   REPRESENTING   SERPENTS'  HEADS  (p.  124). 


FIELD   MUSEUM  OF  NATURAL   HISTORY. 


ANTHROPOLOGY,  VOL.  VI,  PL.  LXV. 


1-2,  COSMIC  SYMBOLS   IN   THIN   COPPER;     3,  DESIGN  OF  SHEET  COPPER  (p.  124). 


FIELD   MUSEUM   OF  NATURAL    HISTORY. 


ANTHROPOLOGY,  VOL.  VI,  PL.  LXVI. 


▼  ▼  ▼ 

OBJECTS  OF  SHEET  COPPER,   DESIGNS  UNKNOWN   (p.  124) 


FIELD   MUSEUM   OF   NATURAL    HISTORY. 


ANTHROFOLOGY,  VOL.  VI,  PL.  LXVII 


3  4 

1-2,   SWASTIKAS  IN   COPPER;     3-4,  COPPER  OBJECTS   IN  OPEN    WORK  (pp.  124,  125). 


FIELD   MUSEUM  OF  NATURAL   HISTORY. 


ANTHROPOLOGY,  VOL.  VI,  PL.  LXVIII. 


mms: 


1-3,  COPPER  OBJECTS  IN  OPEN    WORK;     4,  SHEET  COPPER,   PROBABLY 
REPRESENTING  HEAD  OF  SERPENT  (pp.  124,  125). 


FIELD   MUSEUM   OF   NATURAL    HISTORY. 


ANTHROPOLOGY,  VOL.  VI,  PL.   LXIX. 


1,   BEAR'S  FOOT;     2,  FISH   EFFIGY;     3,   EAGLE   EFFIGY,  ALL  IN   SHEET  COPPER  (pp.  125,  127) . 


FIELD  MUSEUM  OF  NATURAL   HISTORY. 


ANTHROPOLOGY,  VOL.  VI,  PL.  LXX. 


1-2,  CONCAVE  COPPER  OBJECTS;     3-5,   BEAR'S  TEETH   IN   COPPER,   BROKEN   PROBLEMATICAL 
FORM    AND   COPPER  ORNAMENT  (pp.  125,  126). 


FIELD   MUSEUM   OF   NATURAL    HISTORY. 


ANTHROPOLOGY,  VOL.  VI,  PL.   LXXII 


- 


1-2,   MASSES  OF  COPPER  SLIGHTLY  HAMMERED;     3,   LARGE   MASS  OF  COPPER  PARTLY 
HAMMERED;     4-7,  FRAGMENTS  OF  COPPER  SHOWING   EFFECTS  OF  THE  HEAT  (p.  128-  - 


FIELD  MUSEUM  OF  NATURAL   HISTORY. 


ANTHROPOLOGY,  VOL.  VI,  PL.  LXXIIL 


COPPER   PIECES   MELTED  BY  THE  HEAT  OF  THE  ALTARS   (p.  128). 


FIELD   MUSEUM  OF  NATURAL   HISTORY. 


ANTHROPOLOGY,  VOL.  VI,  PL.   LXXV. 


wr  - 


1-2,   LARGE  OBSIDIAN   BLADES  FROM   ALTAR  2;     3,  OBSIDIAN   BLADE   RESTORED   (p.  132). 


FIELD   MUSEUM   OF   NATURAL    HISTORY. 


ANTHROPOLOGY,  VOL.  VI,  PL.   LXXVI. 


I,    SPECIALIZED  OBSIDIAN    BLADE;     2-3,    PROBABLY   KNIVES  (p.  132) 


FIELD   MUSEUM  OF  NATURAL   HISTORY. 


ANTHROPOLOGY,  VOL.  VI,  PL.  LXXVII. 


1-4,  STONE   RINGS  FROM   ALTAR  1;     5,  OUTLINES  OF   RINGS  (p.  139) 


FIELD   MUSEUM   OF  NATURAL    HISTORY. 


ANTHROPOLOGY    VOL.  VI,  PL.   LXXVIII. 


1,   ENGRAVED   PIPE   FROM   ALTAR  2;     2,  DUCK-FISH   PIPE  FROM   ALTAR  2  (p.  140). 


FIELD   MUSEUM   OF  NATURAL   HISTORY. 


ANTHROPOLOGY,  VOL.  VI,  PL.  LXXIX. 


MICA  ORNAMENTS  FROM   ALTAR  1    IN    MOUND  25  (p.  142). 


FIELD   MUSEUM   OF   NATURAL    HISTORY. 


ANTHROPOLOGY,  VOL.  VI,  PL.  LXXX. 


STRINGS  OF   PEARL   BEADS  FROM    MOUND  25   (p.  146). 


FIELD    MUSEUM   OF   NATURAL    HISTORY. 


ANTHROPOLOGY,  VOL.  VI,  PL.   LXXXII. 


1,   PORTION  OF  HUMAN   FEMUR   WITH   CARVING   FOUND    WITH   SKELETON  278; 
2,   PORTION  OF  HUMAN   FEMUR  CARVED,   FROM   SKELETON  281    (p.  111). 


FIELD   MUSEUM  OF  NATURAL   HISTORY. 


ANTHROPOLOGY,  VOL.  VI,  PL.  LXXXIII. 


EFFIGIES  FOUND    WITH   SKELETON  281    (pp.  112,  113). 


flfllVWMTV  OF  HlWWlt  LIBRARY 

DEC  a  8  1922 


BIBLIOGRAPHY  OF  HOPEWELL  GROUP 

Atwater,  Caleb,  Archasologia  Americana.  American  Antiquarian 
Society,  1820,  p.  182. 

Fowke,  G.,  Archasological  History  of  Ohio.  Columbus,  Ohio,  1902, 
PP-  343-347- 

Holmes,  W.  H.,  Areas  of  American  Culture  Characterization  Tenta- 
tively Outlined.  American  Anthropologist  (n.s.),  Vol.  XVI,  19 14, 
P-  4*3- 

Hooton,  Ernest  A.,  Indian  Village  Site  and  Cemetery  near  Madison- 
ville,  Ohio,  with  Notes  on  the  Artifacts  by  Charles  C.  Willoughby. 
Papers  of  the  Peabody  Museum  of  American  Archaeology  and 
Ethnology,  Harvard  University,  Vol.  VIII,  No.  1.    Cambridge,  1920. 

Kunz,  George  Frederick,  The  Book  of  the  Pearl  (New  York,  1908), 
pp.  485-510. 

Mills,  W.  C,  i.  Exploration  of  Baum  Prehistoric  Village  Site.  Ohio 
Archasological  and  Historical  Quarterly,  Vol.  XV,  No.  1  (Columbus, 
O.,  1906),  pp.  13,  96. 

2.  Exploration  of  the  Edwin  Harness  Mound.  Ohio  Archaeological 
and  Historical  Quarterly,  Vol.  XVI,  No.  2  (Columbus,  O., 
1907),  pp.  54,  70,  83,  85. 

3.  Exploration  of  the  Seip  Mound.  Ohio  Archaeological  and  His- 
torical Quarterly,  Vol.  XVIII,  1909,  p.  320. 

4.  Exploration   of   Seip    Mound.      Putnam   Anniversary    Volume 

(New  York,  1909),  p.  125. 

5.  The  Tremper  Mound.    Holmes  Anniversary  Volume  (Washing- 

ton, 1916),  pp.  339,  340,  347,  356. 

6.  Exploration  of  the  Tremper  Mound.  Certain  Mounds  and  Village 
Sites  in  Ohio,  Vol.  II,  pt.  3  (Columbus,  O.,  1916),  pp.  115,  116, 
126,  217,  222.  Also  printed  in  Ohio  Archaeological  and  Historical 
Quarterly,  Vol.  XXV,  No.  3,  July,  19 16. 

7.  Explorations  of  the  Westenhaver  Mound.  Certain  Mounds'  and 
Village  Sites  in  Ohio,  Vol.  II,  pt.  4,  1917.  Also  printed  in  Ohio 
Archasological  and  Historical  Quarterly,  Vol.  XVI,  April, 
1917,  No.  2. 

179 


i8o  Hopewell  Mound  Group 

Moore,  C.  B.,  i.  As  to  Copper  from  Certain  Mounds  of  the  St.  Johns 
River,  Florida,  1894,  Vol.  1,  pp.  30-31;  Vol.  II,  p.  224. 

2.  Sheet-Copper  from  the  Mounds  is  not  Necessarily  of  European 
Origin.  With  Discussion  by  J.  D.  McGuire,  F.  W.  Putnam,  and 
George  A.  Dorsey.  American  Anthropologist  (n.s.),  Vol.  V, 
1903,  p.  27. 

Moorehead,  W.  K.,    i.    New  Relics  of  Mound  Builders.    Illustrated 
American,  Vol.  IX,  1892,  pp.  509-512. 

2.  Primitive  Man  in  Ohio,  1892.  Chapter  XV,  pp.  184-197; 
Chapter  XVI,  pp.  204-241. 

3.  Recent  Archaeological  Discoveries  in  Ohio.  Scientific  American 
Supplement,  Vol.  XXXIV,  August  27,  1892,  pp.  13886-13890. 

4.  Recent  Discoveries  among  the  Mound  Builders.  California 
Illustrated  Magazine,  1893,  pp.  471-483. 

5.  Ohio  Mounds,  1893,  pp.  1-7,  10-21.  Pamphlet  distributed  at 
the  World's  Columbian  Exposition,  Chicago. 

6.  Synopsis  of  Archaeological  Work  in  Ross  County,  Ohio,  1893 
(6  pages). 

7.  Sculptures  from  Southern  Ohio  Mounds.  Archaeologist,  Vol.  I. 
1893,  pp.  208-213. 

8.  Comparison  between  Harness  Mound  and  Hopewell  Effigy, 
Report  of  the  Ohio  Historical  and  Archaeological  Society,  cover- 
ing field  work  of  1896,  Vol.  VI,  Sec.  4,  pp.  308-330. 

9.  The  Hopewell  Find.  American  Antiquarian,  Vol.  XVIII, 
1896,  p.  58. 

10.  The  Hopewell  Group.    The  Antiquarian,  Vol.  I,  1897,  p.  208. 

ii.  Are  the  Hopewell  Copper  Objects  Prehistoric?  American 
Anthropologist  (n.s.),  Vol.  V,  1903,  p.  50.  Also  reprinted  in  the 
Ohio  Archaeological  and  Historical  Quarterly,  Vol.  XII,  p.  317. 

12.  A  Study  of  Primitive  Culture  in  Ohio.  Putnam  Anniversary 
Volume  (New  York,  1909),  pp.  137-150. 

13.  The  Stone  Age  in  North  America  (Boston,  19 10),  Vol.  I,  pp.  140, 
218,  373;  Vol.  II,  pp.  122,  233. 

14.  Stone  Ornaments  of  the  American  Indian  (1917),  pp.  234,  251, 
382,387,  417. 


Bibliography  181 

Putnam,  F.  W.,  Abstract  of  Paper  published  in  Popular  Science  News 
for  January,  1896.     American  Antiquarian,  Vol.  XVIII,  1896, 
P-  55- 
Putnam,  F.  W.  and  Willoughby,  C.  C,  Symbolism  in  Ancient  Ameri- 
can Art.     American  Association  for  the  Advancement  of  Science, 
Vol.  XLIV,  1896,  pp.  302-323. 

Shetrone,  H.  C,  Culture  Problem  in  Ohio  Archaeology.     American 
Anthropologist  (n.s.),  Vol.  XXII,  1920,  p.  144. 

Squier  and  Davis,  Ancient  Monuments  of   the   Mississippi  Valley 
(1848),  pp.  24-29,  156,  255. 

Willoughby,  Charles  C,  i.  Primitive  Metal  Working.     American 
Anthropologist  (n.s.),  Vol.  V,  1903,  p.  55. 

2.  The  Art  of  the  Great  Earthwork  Builders  of  Ohio.      Holmes 
Anniversary  Volume  (Washington,  1916),  pp.  470,  473,  475,  476. 

3.  Serpent  Mound  of  Adams  County,  Ohio.     American  Anthropo- 
logist (n.s.),  Vol.  XXI,  1919,  p.  153. 

Wilson,  Thomas,  The  Swastika.    Report  of  the  U.  S.  National  Museum, 
1894,  pp.  888-894. 

Wissler,  Clark,  The  American   Indian  (New  York,   1917),  p.  253; 
2d  ed.  (1922),  pp.  269-270. 

Wright,  G.  Frederick,  Story  of  My  Life  (19 16),  p.  410. 


! 


INDEX  TO  VOLUME  VI 


117. 

of,   107. 
11,  94.  97,    101,   102, 

0,    20,    46. 
-,    122. 

iOth,    carved     from, 


■3,  87. 
18. 
117,    11 


8;   of  stone. 


19. 

my,  7. 

06. 

11,  107,  109. 

>f   Hopi,    18,   20,   21, 

112,    120. 

[opewell,   no,   125. 

opewell,   150,   156; 
:8,   136,   156. 

Hopewell,  106. 
Dpper,  no,  112. 
158;  disks  of,  92. 

at   Hopewell,    149. 

-well,  114. 

,  32. 

er,    122. 

veil,  98. 

11,  174,  175- 

ell  mounds,  90;  in- 

tive  age  of,  175. 

ects   of,   167. 

r,  120. 


109. 

f.  177. 

0. 

f,  among  Hopi,  49, 
.Tiing  of  54,  57,  59; 
in.    55,    60;    painting 

I  Hopi,  47,  48,  51. 
)pi,  Agave,  92;  Bad- 
80;  Blue  Bird,  76; 
iwing  Owl,  89;  But- 
)ud,  94;  Coyote,  81; 
;le,  91;   Juniper,  78; 


Katchina,  83;    Lizard,  89;    Macaw, 

81;   Magpie,    101;  names  given  by, 

74;   Rabbit,    109;    Rattlesnake,    112; 

Reed,    75;    Sage,    105;    Sand,    no; 

Skeleton,   93;    Sparrow   Hawk,   85; 

Spider,   88;   Squash,  74;    Sun,    109: 

Tave,    108;    Tobacco,    99;     Young 

Corn-ear,  96. 
Clark's  Work,  83. 
Columbian  Exposition,  79. 
Cones,   of   copper,    120,    131. 
Consecrating      Ceremony,      among 

Hopi,  7. 
Copper,    of    Hopewell    mounds,     101, 

116. 
Cord,   of   sinew,    ill. 
Cosmic  Symbols,  88,    124,   125,    176. 
Cover,  of  stone  vessel,  102. 
Cresson,  H.  T.,  92,  94,  99,  175. 
Crier,   in   Hopi  Ceremony,  8. 
Cylinder,  of  copper,  120,   128. 


Dancing,  in  Plaza,  42,  45;  practice 
for,  among  Hopi,  22-24. 

Defences,    at   Hopewell,   84,   87. 

Delivery,   among   Hopi,   47,    50. 

Discharming,  end  of  Hopi  ceremony, 
43;  purpose  of,  44;  song  for,  44. 

Disks,  of  copper,  109,  121,  123;  of 
flint,  95,  96. 

Ditch,   at   Hopewell,  84. 

Dog,  figured  on  Etruscan  sarco- 
phagi, No.  4,  69;  bones  of,  not 
found  in  Hopewell,  176. 

Drill,  of  flint,  no;  of  iron,  129. 

Eagle  effigies,  at  Hopewell,   127. 

Ear-bob,  of  copper,  no. 

Ear  Ornaments,  of  copper,  121. 

Ear-pendants,  of  shell,  in. 

Effigies,  of  Hopewell,  human,  163;  of 

bone,  112;  of  copper,  no;  of  stone, 

136. 
Enclosures,     in     Hopewell    mounds, 

84. 
Erosion,  of  Hopewell  mounds,  86. 

Femur,    carved,   of   Hopewell,    112. 
Fire,  effects  of,  on  objects  in  mound, 

113. 
Fish    Effigies,   of  copper,    109,    125. 
Flint   Ridge  Stone,   133. 


183 


UNIVERSITY  OF  ILLINOIS-URBANA 


3  0112  002008842 


[J£ 


VKv' 


r     *►     -«^*i^c^ 


